November 2022

Solar system is the group of heavenly bodies comprising the sun and the nine planets. The origin of the Solar System Theories A theory is a set of reasoned ideas intended to explain facts or events 1. Passing Star Theory A star with a greater gravitational pull passed near the sun It attracted large quantities of gaseous materials from the sun The materials split, cooled and condensed to form planets The planets were set in orbit by the passing star   Weaknesses Doesn’t explain the origin of the sun and star. Minimal chance of a star approaching another Materials would disperse than condense 2. Collision Theory Star with greater gravitational pull passed near the sun It attracted large quantities of gaseous materials The materials split into portions Large portions collided with smaller ones and swept them to form planets. The weaknesses are the same as the passing star’s Theory. 3. Nebula Cloud Theory There was a slowly rotating cloud of dust and gas called Nebula It cooled and began to contact Rotation speed increased and successive rings of gaseous materials were formed. The rings condensed to form planets The central gaseous material remained as the sun Evidence Rotation and revolution of planets in anticlockwise direction Weakness The origin of nebular is not explained. 4. Supernova/explosion Theory There was a violent explosion of a star. A cloud of dust (nebular) remained from the star. There was fast movement of the cloud due to the force of explosion. Rotation speed increased due to gravitational attraction The cloud flattened into a disc. The matter began to accumulate towards the centre to form a proto-sun which later began to shine. The rest of the cloud collapsed to form planets. Weaknesses Doesn’t explain the origin of the star Doesn’t explain the cause of explosion Composition of the Solar System 1. The Sun It’s the centre of the universe. Characteristics It’s a star. A star is a heavenly possessing its own light which it transmits. Nebula/galaxy is a cluster of stars. The earth is in a galaxy called The Milky Way. It’s made of very hot gases mainly hydrogen (70%) and helium (30%). Has a diameter of 1392000km. Surrounded by a layer of gas which has boiled from its surface which is called corona. Rotates on its own axis in anticlockwise direction. Has gravitational pull which holds all the planets in orbit around it. An orbit is a path which a planet or a satellite follows around a star or a planet. Temperature at its centre is 15m◦c and at the surface is 5500◦c. Radiates solar energy which is very important for all forms of life on the earth. Planets are large spherical celestial/heavenly bodies in space. There are 9 planets in our solar system. Characteristics Spherical in shape Don’t have their own light but reflect it from the sun. Revolve around the sun in anticlockwise direction. Have their own force of gravity Only one is known to support life. The following are the planets arranged in order from the one nearest to the sun. Mercury Nearest from the sun Its 58m km from the sun Has no satellites Takes approximately 88 earth days to revolve around the sun Venus 2nd planet from the sun It’s 108m km from the sun One of the brightest planets Can be seen clearly with naked eyes Takes approximately 225 earth days to revolve around the sun Slightly smaller than the earth Has no satellites Together with the earth they are called twin planets due to having many similarities Earth The 3rd planet from the sun The earth and the heavenly bodies make the universe The only planet that supports life The home of man Approximately 149m km from the sun Takes 365 ¼ days to revolve around the sun Has one satellite, the moon Mars Also called The Red Planet because when it’s observed through a telescope it appears reddish. The 4th from the sun Slightly smaller than the earth Approximately 228m km from the sun Takes 687 earth days to revolve around the sun Between Mass and Jupiter there are small celestial bodies called planetoids. Has no satellite. Jupiter 5th planet from the sun Approximately 778m km from the sun Largest in the universe Rotates on its own axis at very fast speed Has flattened poles due to its fast speed of rotation Has very thick layers of ice on its surface takes 12 earth years to revolve around the sun Has 16 satellites Saturn 6th planet from the sun Second largest planet Approximately 1427m km from the sun Takes 29 ½ earth years to revolve around the sun Has a ring around it Has 18 satellites Uranus 7th planet from the sun About 4 times bigger than the earth Approximately 2870m km from the sun Also rotates very fast Also has flattened poles due to fast speed of rotation It appears greenish foe being surrounded by methane gas Has 8 satellites Takes 84 earth years to revolve around the sun Neptune One of the farthest from the sun 8th planet from the sun Approximately 4497m km from the sun Has 8 satellites Takes 165 earth years to revolve around the sun Very similar in size, colour and character with Uranus Pluto 9th planet from the earth Farthest from the sun The smallest 1/6 the size of the earth Approximately 5900m km from the sun Takes 248 earth years to revolve around the sun Has one satellite Very little is known about it Other Celestial Bodies Natural Satellites Any natural heavenly body that orbits around a planet e.g. moon for earth, tritan for Saturn and Triton for Neptune. Asteroids/Planetoids Also called minor planets. Are small fragments of rocks left going around the sun when the solar system was formed Found between Mass and Jupiter Are 1500 in number They sometimes collide with each other and planets due to Jupiter’s gravitational pull causing them to move in erratic orbits. Comets Heavenly bodies which appear to have a head

The meaning of Geography Scientific study of the earth as a home of man. Study of interrelationship on natural and human phenomena on the earth’s surface.  Environment The surroundings All external conditions surrounding an organism which has influence over its behaviour. Environment can be divided into two: The Physical Environment Natural physical conditions of weather, climate, vegetation, animals, soil, landforms and drainage. The Human Environment Human activities such as farming, forestry, mining, tourism, settlement, transportation, trade and industry. Branches of Geography Physical Geography Deals with the study of natural physical environment of human kind. The areas covered include: Geology-study of the origin, structure and composition of the earth. It includes study of rocks. Geomorphology- the study of internal and external land forming processes and landforms. Climatology- the study of climate and weather Pedology- the study of soils Biogeography – the study of soils, vegetation and animals. Hydrology- the study of water bodies Spatial geography-study of space Human and Economic Geography Study of people and their activities on the earth’s surface. The areas covered include: Mining Forestry Agriculture Fishing Wildlife and tourism Industry Energy etc. Practical Geography A smaller branch which equips the learner with practical skills that enhance their understanding and interpretation of human and physical geographical information. The areas are: Statistical methods Map work Field work Photograph work Importance of Studying Geography Facilitates good relationship among nations by studying geography of other regions of the world. it’s a career subject in that it enables one to go for advanced studies in specialised fields e.g. geography teachers, meteorology, surveying etc. Enables us to appreciate other people’s way of life by learning economic activities of different communities within our country and other parts of the world. Enables us to conserve our environment when we learn negative and positive effects of human activities on the environment. Enables us to conserve our resources when we learn wise use of resources in conservation and management of resources e.g. wildlife, forests, energy, etc. Inculcates in us virtues of cooperation and patience as we work in groups. Makes us to appreciate manual work as we are involved in practical geography which may lead to self employment. Promotion of industry such as tourism by guiding tourists to places of interest by using maps, calculations of distances etc. Relationship between Geography and Other Subjects Mathematics-mathematical techniques are used in drawing graphs and pie charts and mathematical formulae are used in geography to calculate distances, areas, population density, population densities, etc. History-history uses geographical tools like maps, charts and graphs to show where past events took place e.g. the movement of people in the past. Biology-Geography explains the distribution of organisms and factors influencing their distribution on the earth’s surface. Physics-geography uses physics principles and formulae to calculate and describe aspects such as magnetic field, gravity, vibrations of the earth etc. Chemistry-geography applies chemistry in studying chemical composition and chemical changes which take place in soils and rocks. Agriculture-geography studies farming systems, their distribution and factors affecting farming activities. Meteorology-geography uses meteorological information in the study of weather and in classifying climatic regions and mapping them. Geology-geography studies rocks.

TOPIC 1 : INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY – Click to view TOPIC 2 : THE EARTH AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM – Click to view TOPIC 3 : WEATHER – Click to view TOPIC 4 : MINERAL AND ROCKS – Click to view TOPIC 5 : MINING – Click to view

FORM 1 SECONDARY SCHOOL NOTES PDF – Click to download FORM 2 SECONDARY SCHOOL NOTES PDF – Click to download FORM 3 SECONDARY SCHOOL NOTES PDF – Click to download FORM 4 SECONDARY SCHOOL NOTES PDF – Click to download

One of the characteristics of democratic systems of government is the frequent holding of elections to give the citizens a chance to pick leaders of their choice. This is the case with the USA, Britain and India.                     THE ELECTORAL PROCESS AND SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT IN THE USA What is Representative Democracy? Name three main organs of government in the United States of America. Explain the meaning of the term Federal Republic. (Define a Federal Republic). Name the states that make up the United States of America. The USA attained independence in July 1776 and created a Representative Democracy I.E a system of government in which officials are elected by citizens to manage the affairs of government. In the United States of America, there are several levels of elections to elect the President, senators and members of the House of Representatives.  The government comprises three organs I.E the Legislature, the Executive and the Judiciary. The USA is a Federal Republic, meaning that the government comprises several states that are under one federal government.                     THE RISE OF THE USA The United States of America came into existence in 1776 when the thirteen British colonies of North America united to overcome British colonialism by forming an alliance under the articles of a confederation with a common armed force to fight the British. Actual independence was got in 1783 with the signing of The Peace of Paris. State/explain the problems that the United States of America faced after independence. After independence, the Americans had so many problems to deal with. They had to: Achieve unity amidst diversity. Organize a representative government. Reconcile freedom with authority. Regulate taxation, commerce and currency. Govern the yet ungoverned lands. Maintain forces adequate for defense. In 1787, a convention of delegates from the states that formed the USA met in Philadelphia and drew up a constitution, which was ratified in 1788, after which George Washington became the first President of the USA in 1789. Describe/explain the features of the constitution of the United States of America. It is federal. Each of the states that make up the United States of America has a large measure of independence. The national (federal) government only has powers identical to it I.E handling or dealing with national and international issues. It is written. It is the supreme law of the land. All the states and their people are bound to it. No state is allowed to secede (break away) after joining the USA. It includes the Bill of Rights I.E the rights and freedoms of the individual citizen, which nobody can take away. It is to be interpreted by the Supreme court. The legislature, which is bicameral and which comprises two houses I.E the senate and the house Of representatives, which together became Congress. Clearly spelt out processes of constitutional amendment. Separation of powers between the legislature, the Executive and the judicature (Judiciary) as branches of the federal government to ensure that no branch attains or has more influence over the others.                       HOW THE US GOVERNMENT WORKS         The Legislature Describe the US legislature. It is the lawmaking arm of government. It is made up of the Senate and the house of Representatives, altogether known as Congress. Explain how the US legislature works. A bill is first debated in both houses. When approved, the bill is forwarded to the President for assent. Congress amends the constitution when necessary. Such amendment must be approved by individual states. Explain the role played by Congress in the USA. It checks on the executive. It ensures that government revenue is properly used. It controls the revenue and expenditure of the federal government I.E defense, foreign aid and salaries for federal employees. It checks on the Executive. It closely monitors the conduct of the President, Vice President and other senior public officials and helps guard against serious crimes like treason or corruption. It enacts and amends laws. It approves the ratification of treaties with other powers It approves the appointment of those who work in the senior civil service and foreign relations such as high-ranking government officials and ambassadors. It appoints commissions of enquiry to investigate issues of national importance. It represents the aspirations of the American people. Explain how one becomes a member of the federal parliament (Congress) in the United States of America. Members of Congress are elected by universal adult suffrage for different terms as follows: Representatives are chosen from among the states according to the size (population). They serve for two years. Senators serve for six years and are elected (two) from each state. Congressional candidates are nominated from either the Republican or the Democratic Party. Describe three main political parties in the United States of America. Three political parties are represented in the US Congress. These are: These are: The republicans, which mainly comprises members that could be regarded as conservatives, with deepseated rigidity with regard to issues or matters concerning the lives and values of Americans. The Democratic Party, which mainly consists of Liberals and tends to put up with emergent issues such as scientific and other social developments. The Party of Independent Candidates, which comprises politicians who choose to stand or run through the elections as independent candidates. These belong to neither the Republican nor Democratic political parties. However, so far, Presidents of the USA only came from either the Republican or Democratic party. Parliament buildings of the USA are in Washington DC: the capital city of the USA. Individual state issues are in the hands of state governments. Each of the states that form the USA has its own government, which handles or runs its own (internal) affairs. Describe the features of state government in the United States of America. Each state has a governor, who is its administrative head. Each state has a law court that handles internal affairs. Each state has education, health and public welfare facilities. Each state is responsible for its own development. Each state has its own capital city. Each

In Kenya, development depends on the availability of funds. The government must have an annual financial plan to identify its sources of revenue and areas of expenditure. Every year, the Minister for Finance has to read the Budget. What is a budget? A budget is a financial statement that gives estimates of government revenue and expenditure. Or: It is a comprehensive financial statement that gives an estimate of government revenue and expenditure for a given financial year.  Explain why the government of Kenya prepares the budget annually. To Identify sources of government revenue. To identify development projects and expenditure for a particular year. To explain to the public the taxes imposed. To balance its revenue and expenditure and prioritize its needs. To obtain useful information that enables it to monitor expenditure. To assess its performance in the previous year. To communicate its plans and policies to its foreign and local development partners for the purpose of investment. To secure loans and grants from donors. To plan for emergencies (crises) within the year E.G earthquakes, disease outbreaks and floods. To promote accountability and transparency in government departments as each ministry is allocated funds in order of need and must account for them. To have a point of reference in the preparation of the next budget. Into what two main categories are sources of government revenue in Kenya divided? (Describe two main classifications of sources of government in Kenya.) Internal sources E.G taxation. External sources I.E loans and grants, mainly from donor countries. Into what two categories is taxation divided?  Taxation, which is the main internal source of government revenue, is divided into two categories. These are: Direct taxes E.G pay-As-you-Earn (Payee). It is commonly known as income Tax. Indirect tax. Identify the forms of taxes that fall under the Indirect Tax category. Customs Duty, which is imposed on imported goods, E.G vehicles. Excise Duty I.E tax on locally made goods like coffee and soda ash. Value Added Tax (VAT) I.E sales Tax, which is imposed on goods like bread, fuel and sugar. Traffic Revenue Tax I.E Road-maintenance levy, road licenses, airport tax, etc. Trading licenses, which are paid by business people. Investment revenue I.E profit gained from parastatals and other firms. Interest from loans paid to the government. Land rates from land-owners. House rents for government buildings. Court fines. Fees charged on a variety of services such as levies on timber, mining, tourist and scrap metal fees. Sales of treasury bills and post office bonds. Grants and loans from donors such as world Bank and the International Monitory Fund (IMF). Identify five types of taxes paid by Kenyans to the government. Income tax; Customs Duty; Excise duty; Value Added tax (VAT); Airport tax; Sales stamp duty. What problems does the Kenya government encounter in raising revenue for national development? (Explain the setbacks facing the Kenya government in raising revenue for national development.) Evasion of taxation by individuals and organizations. People’s negative attitude towards tax payment due to lack of information on the importance of tax payment apart from rampant corruption and poverty. Wealth declaration initiatives do not provide the right information as to how much wealth an individual has that is eligible for taxation due to dishonesty. Rich Kenyans keep their money in foreign banks, making Kenya to lack interest generated from such monies. Inadequate information on local investment through Treasury Bills, post office bonds and shares at the Nairobi Stock exchange. High interest rates on loans. The donor conditions are too harsh and undermine national sovereignty. This is because the recipient nation is compelled to import goods from the country that gives her loans. Government offices in charge of tax collection at times cheat about the income to be taxed. Some officers embezzle the revenue collected, making it not to reach the treasury. Describe two main types of government expenditure. Capital expenditure I.E money for development activities such as development of roads, schools, industries, airports and agriculture. Recurrent expenditure I .E money used for maintenance of government services. Describe any three forms of recurrent expenditure. (Into what forms is recurrent expenditure classified/divided?) Payment of salaries. Repair and maintenance of government property Loan repayment. Maintenance of embassies. Membership obligations to regional and international bodies such as the African union (AU) and the United Nations Organization (UNO) Grants to local authorities. Bursaries to schools. Explain how the Kenya government controls Public finance. Government revenue has to be controlled to ensure efficient and effective use of public funds. As the supreme body of the Land, the Kenya Parliament controls government money by enacting various laws aimed at ensuring government accountability as follows: All intended government expenditure is approved by parliament. All reports on expenditure from the ministries are scrutinized by the Public Accounts committee and the Public Investments committee. The Controller and Auditor-General audits ministries and government departments and report the findings to parliament. The Auditor-General of the state co-operations audits the expenditure of all state co-operations. The Permanent secretaries in the ministries account for all the money allocated to their ministries. The Kenya anticorruption commission investigates corruption cases and recommends prosecution of suspects. Government contracts are advertised and awarded according to the procurement procedures. Supplementary expenditure in government ministries are approved by parliament. Revenue evasions are curbed by use of X-ray scanners to verify cargo arriving at the Mombasa port. The Public Officers Ethics act, which was formulated by the government in 2001, compels Kenyans to shun corruption, which encourages those handling public money to spend it for the intended purpose. Embezzlement of public funds attracts heavy penalties.

What are local authorities? (Describe local authorities in Kenya.) Local authorities are a system of local level administration in Kenya, which is separate from central government. They constitute local government, which is run by residents in their particular localities. Local government is carried out by elected local councilors. All local Authorities operate under the Minister for Local Government. Explain how local authorities were established in Kenya. In Kenya, local authorities were introduced in 1903, following the enactment of the Township Ordinance, which created Nairobi and Mombasa townships. However, in the colonial era, the British separated the European local authorities from the African local authorities known as The Local Native Council from 1924. In 1950, these councils were elevated to African District Councils. At Independence in 1963, the local authorities were unified. Outline the types of local authorities in Kenya. (Into what types are local authorities in Kenya classified/divided?) Local authorities in Kenya include: City councils; municipal councils; Urban councils; County councils; Town councils; Area councils. Analyse/describe the system of local government in Kenya. Each council has elected and, in some cases, nominated councilors. Nominated councilors are appointed by the Minister for Local Government. Elected councilors are voted into office by residents within their respective localities. Also, in the councils, are District Commissioners, i.e. exe Officio members of the local authorities in their districts. Ø Local people are allowed to participate in matters affecting them in their daily life, such as health, Education and Agriculture. Local authorities employ qualified staff for higher and technical posts, which is important for effective administration and provision of services. The Local Government Staff Commission appoints middle-level and senior staff. Identify/outline the most important officers in a local authority. (Name the officers that run/operate a local authority.) The most important officers in a local authority include: The Clerk; The Treasurer; The Engineer; The Medical Officer of Health. CITY AND MUNICIPAL COUNCILS  Name three cities in Kenya today. Today, Kenya has three cities. These are: Nairobi, Mombasa, Describe city and municipal councils in Kenya. (Explain how government activities are carried out/exercised in city and municipal councils in Kenya.) Cities are run in the same manner as the municipalities, except that services offered at the City level are at a larger scale due to higher population. Like the municipalities, the city is headed by a Mayor. Every municipality in Kenya has a Municipal Council. Each council consists of elected and nominated councilors. The elected councilors represent the electoral areas (wards), into which each council is divided. The nominated councilors, who are appointed by the Minister for Local Government, work hand in hand with the elected councilors. A mayor is elected from among the councilors during the first Council meeting after each General Election. The Mayor heads the council and presides over all Council meetings as chairman and as chief representative of the council. The Mayor is legible for re-election. The Mayor is assisted by the Deputy Mayor, who is elected in the same manner. All elected councilors in each council hold office for a five-year term and can stand for re-election. Describe/analyse county and town councils in Kenya. Normally, Counties are rural areas while towns or townships are urban. A county or township is an area that does not merit municipal status due to its small size. Townships may exist within counties. Each county or township has a County or Township council made up of elected and nominated councilors, headed by a chairman and deputy chairman, both of who are elected from among the councilors during the first Council meeting. URBAN AND AREA COUNCILS Describe urban and area councils in Kenya. Explain how government functions/runs in urban and area councils. They are found in every County division. They consist of a chairman, vice chairman and elected and nominated councilors. Explain the relationship between local authorities and central government in Kenya. Local and central government are linked through the Minister for Local Government. The Minister for Local Government controls the activities of all local authorities throughout the country. Central government spells out directives and policy guidelines to local authorities through the Ministry for Local Government. Through the Local Government Act, the Ministry is mandated to ensure that all local authorities function and operate within the overall national policy as spelt out by Central Government. Explain how central government influences/controls local authorities in Kenya. (Describe the powers of the Minister for local government over local authorities in Kenya.) General supervision of the activities of the local authorities to ensure that they follow the regulations of the central government. Streamlining local authorities’ affairs. Re-organization of local authorities through upgrading, redefining their boundaries and amalgamation of two or more local authorities. Enquiry, suspension and dissolution of a local authority. Approval or disapproval of decisions made by local authorities. Appointment of senior officers of the councils, E.G the Town Clerk and the Auditor General. This, he does in conjunction with the Public Service Commission. Approval or disapproval of the by laws made by local authorities. Receiving and assessing annual reports on the performance of local authorities. Financial control over local authorities by withdrawing grants, appointing inspectors to audit the local authorities and either approving or disapproving levies, rates, taxes and rent increases. Outline the services that are offered by local authorities in Kenya. Education; Health; Water; Housing; Sewerage services, depending on their respective capacity. Explain the functions of local authorities in Kenya. They link the people with the central government through their elected leaders and councilors. They enhance participatory democracy in their respective localities and afford their people an opportunity to exercise their democratic rights and manage their public affairs and government. For instance, Councilors, Mayors, Chairmen and other leaders are elected democratically. They mobilize local resources and energies in carrying out projects within their areas, E.G construction of roads, bridges, etc. They facilitate education through construction and maintenance of schools. They assist the Central Government in providing social services to the people over a specified locality. They perform specialist duties and

After attaining independence, African leaders had a great task of nation building. The Africans had suffered economic exploitation, racial discrimination and lack of political representation. The situation could only be addressed through sound policies that would promote national development. Many African countries such as Kenya, Uganda, Ghana, Tanzania and the Democratic Republic of Congo adopted various policies for development. However, the leaders lacked resources and had not been prepared for leadership.                         TANZANIA After attaining her independence in 1961, Tanganyika embarked on an ambitious development programme. The significant political mileage was the union of Tanganyika (under Julius Nyerere) with Zanzibar (under Abeid Karume), forming Tanzania in 1964. Describe/discuss the political developments in postcolonial Tanzania. (Assess the political developments in Tanzania since independence). In 1961, Tanganyika attained her independence from British rule, with Mwalimu Julius Nyerere as President. After Zanzibar’s independence from British rule, an Arab leadership headed by the sultan was imposed on the Africans. Soon after, Sheikh Abeid Karume of the Afroshirazi party came to power, deposing the sultan’s regime. In 1964, there was a political union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar. A new nation: the Union of Tanzania was formed, with Nyerere as President and Karume as First Vice President. According to the constitution of the Union, If the president of the united republic came from the mainland, the first Vice President came from the island and the second Vice President from the mainland. Later, due to some constitutional changes, the post of Prime Minister was introduced. In 1967, the Arusha declaration was signed, laying down the principles for development. Tanzania adopted a Socialist policy in her development agenda. She also embraced the policy of nonalignment. In 1973, Tanzania’s capital centre was transferred from Dar Es Salam to Dodoma to ease administration of mainland Tanzania. Maintenance of the east African Community together with Kenya and Uganda was another political development. Although the community collapsed in 1977 due to policy difference among the three east African countries, more cooperation was realized in 1984, leading to eventual revival of the Community in 1993. In 1977, Tanganyika and Zanzibar merged their two parties: the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) and the Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP) to form Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM). In 1978-1979, Tanzania was invaded by Uganda, but she drove back the Ugandan army and even had a hand in the overthrow of Uganda’s President: Idi Amin Dadaa. President Nyerere made remarkable efforts in Tanzania’s growth. In 1985, Nyerere resigned as Tanzania’s President and Ali Hassan Mwinyi took over. Tanzania offered material and financial support for African Liberation movements, for which she is well remembered, since the OAU liberation Committee was based in Dar Es Salam. Her role in African liberation movements brought independence to Angola, Mozambique and Zimbabwe. This strengthened Tanzania’s opposition to apartheid, which led to Namibia’s independence in 1990, followed by south Africa in 1994. With the support of Ali Hassan Mwinyi but to the disappointment of mainland parliamentarians, Zanzibar decided on its own to join the African Muslim League, which threatened the Republic of Tanzania as a Union, but this problem was later diplomatically repudiated. In 1995, Tanzania held her first multiparty elections and Benjamin William Mkapa was elected President of Multiparty Tanzania. In December 2005, Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete became Tanzania’s fourth president in a peaceful transition. What were the principles of the Arusha Declaration (1967)? (Describe the principles for Tanzania’s development as contained in the 1967 Arusha Declaration.) Self-reliance I.E use of human and local resources for development. Ujamaa (socialism) I.e. Communalism for collective responsibility, unity and national development. Rejection of all forms of discrimination. Nationalization policy I.E control of factories and means of production by the government. Describe the major political developments that President Julius Nyerere will be remembered for in Tanzania. Political union between mainland Tanganyika and Zanzibar in 1964. Nyerere was pro-socialism and was opposed to Capitalist ideology. Support for international organizations, particularly the Nonaligned movement, Organization of African Unity, United Nations Organization and the commonwealth. Support for African Liberation movements, aimed at liberating African countries from colonialism. In fact, Tanzania was a member of the Frontline states: an organization or union of states that worked for liberation of Africans from the colonial bondage. Merger of the Tanzania African National Union and the Afro-Shirazi Party in 1977. these two parties together formed Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM), with Nyerere as President and Karume as Vice President. Nyerere helped President Milton Obote of Uganda, who had been deposed by Idi Amin to reclaim power in Uganda in 1979. Nyerere influenced the transfer of the capital city of Tanzania from Dar-Es-Salam to Dodoma. As an example of good leadership, Nyerere retired as president of Tanzania in 1985 to allow new leadership in the country. Describe/discuss the political challenges/setbacks encountered by Tanzania since independence. (State three political challenges that Ali Hassan Mwinyi faced as President of Tanzania.) Most of Tanzania’s political challenges were encountered during the reign of President Ali Hassan Mwinyi. As President of Tanzania, Mwinyi faced the following problems: His decision to lead Zanzibar in joining the African Muslim League almost broke the Union of Tanzania. By joining the league, Mwinyi made Tanzania an ally of the Arab World without wide consultations He faced pressure to embrace multiparty democracy until the constitutional amendment of May 1992. Corruption contradicted Ujamaa and African socialism. The influx of refugees from the Democratic Republic of Congo was a threat to security. Fear of political instability made Zanzibar threaten to break away from the union. Describe the economic developments/successes/achievements in Tanzania since independence. In 1964, Tanzania adopted the Arusha declaration, with emphasis on self reliance, Ujamaa (socialism) and Nationalization. The Ujamaa policy and desire for Self Reliance boosted agricultural production. Agro-based industries were established. Sisal-related factories and textile industries were set up. Cement, shoes, oil tobacco brewery and steel-manufacturing industries were also built. Nationalization and Africanization encouraged African participation in economic development which enhanced trade and financial initiatives. The construction of the Tazara line and the Tanzam Oil Pipeline,

At independence in 1963, Kenya’s new leaders under President Jomo Kenyatta encountered various political, economic and social challenges, which they lacked experience in handling. They however took up bravely the task of seeing Kenya into prosperity. Explain how national unity was fostered in Kenya by 1964. (Explain the measures taken to defuse the difference between KANU and KADU by 1964.) By December 1964, most of the prominent Kadu leaders, under Ronald Ngala and Masinde Muliro, voluntarily crossed over to Kanu. Paul Ngei of the APP was absorbed into Kanu and was made Chairman of the Kenya Maize and Marketing board. He later became a Minister in the Cabinet. This made Kenya a defector one-party state, although the constitution had a provision for a multiparty system. Parliament abolished the regional constitution that Kenya had at independence. Explain the political developments witnessed in postcolonial Kenya. (Explain the political successes realized in Kenya since independence.) Change of Kenya from a multiparty state to a defector One-Party state (one-party state by fact). Kenya became a dejure One-Party state (One-party state by law) in 1982 but returned to multipartism in 1991 following the repeal of section 2A of the Constitution of Kenya. National Unity. By December 1964, most of the prominent Kadu leaders, under Ronald Ngala and Masinde Muliro, voluntarily crossed over to Kanu, which ended the divisive trend that Kenya would have otherwise followed. The 1964 Republican Constitution, by which Kenya became a republic with an executive President, who was also the head of the government, state and the ruling party. This brought Kenya closer to the strong unitary government that Kanu had always wanted. Though the President was given wide-ranging powers, he was closely bound to an elected Legislature, of which he had to be one. Kanu’s control over parliament and the country as a whole was strengthened in spite of continuous splits in the party along ideological lines. There were various constitutional amendments and bills in parliament to ensure that Kenyans would no longer live under oppression and discrimination of any kind. Since independence, Kenya has remained under an elected government in spite of various unsuccessful coupattempts such as that of 1st August 1982. Kenya has remained free from political instability in spite of political assassinations such as that of Tom Mboya in 1969 and Robert Ouko in 1990. this makes Kenya suitable for civilians and other people to live in. Disbanding of tribal welfare organizations. This took place during the reign of President Daniel Arap Moi. Explain the political challenges/difficulties experienced in postcolonial Kenya. (Explain the political setbacks encountered in Kenya since independence. Suspicions between various ethnic groups E.G the smaller ethnic groups that supported Kadu and the larger ethnic groups that supported Kanu. Conflict between the political leaders E.G between Jomo Kenyatta and Oginga Odinga. Threat of neocolonialism as Western nations and communist countries sought to dominate Kenya’s policies. Political assassinations E.G those of Tom Mboya, J.M Kariuki and Robert Ouko, which left the nation divided. Death of the founding President (Mzee Jomo Kenyatta) in 1978, which created fears over the transition. The 1982 attempted military coup. Prodemocracy protests that led to the scrapping of section 2A of the constitution in 1991. Explain the factors that contributed to the clamour for multipartism in Kenya. Explain why Kenyans eventually demanded multipartism. Rampant corruption in government such as the Goldenberg scam and the grabbing of public plots and buildings. Rigging of elections, especially through the Queue voting system, introduced in party nomination in 1988. The collapse of One-party states in eastern Europe in 1989, which encouraged the struggle for democracy. The success of multipartism in other parts of Africa E.G in Zambia. Pressure from donor institutions and countries. Pressure from the Clergy.  Pressure from the civil society. Explain the challenges/disadvantages of multiparty democracy in Kenya. (Explain the problems facing multiparty democracy in Kenya.) Many politicians and senior government officials were not ready for multipartism. They incited their supporters to kick out opposition supporters from their regions. Ethnic clashes of  1991 particularly in the Rift valley, due to political animosity. Some public servants were used by the executive arm of government and the ruling party to frustrate the opposition by denying politicians licenses to hold political rallies. Many of the political parties formed were ethnic based. Many selfish politicians were paid to defect from their parties and join others. The ruling party used the police force and the  government-owned media to its advantage.  The opposition parties lacked financial support from the state, enjoyed by the ruling party. There was inadequate civic education for the electorate. The international community interfered with the running of the country and openly sided with certain politicians and parties. Due to poverty, many citizens were compromised to vote for incompetent leaders. Most political parties have experienced leadership wrangles.  Explain the role/importance of political parties in Kenya since independence. (In what ways have political parties fostered good governance in postcolonial Kenya?) They formulate policies and programmes on how to run the government more efficiently. They select candidates for public office and nominate candidates for parliamentary and civic seats. They mobilize the people to participate in political affairs E.G elections. Opposition parties check the excesses of the government by pointing out its mistakes. For instance, in 2004, Ntonyiri MP: Maoka Maore pointed out two financial scandals involving misuse of government funds. They initiate political debate on important issues. They provide civic education to the masses. They ensure that there is a government in-waiting in the event that the ruling party is unable to govern. They serve as training ground for political leadership. They provide an opportunity for ethnic groups to associate politically, encouraging unity. Opposition parties take part in Watch-dog committees of Parliament such as the Public Accounts Committee and the Public Investments Committee. Opposition parties provide an alternative approach to the management of political and economic affairs of the country through their contributions in debates. Explain how the existence of many parties has promoted democracy in Kenya

What is Philosophy? (Define the term Philosophy. Or: Explain the meaning of the term Philosophy.) Philosophy is a Greek term that means love for Wisdom. Wisdom is the highest knowledge about people, things and God the Creator. Therefore, philosophy aims at explaining the meaning of human existence. What is a national philosophy? (Define the term National Philosophy. Or: Explain the meaning of the term National Philosophy.) A national philosophy is a system of ideological beliefs and values that are widely accepted within a country, championed particularly by the Ruling party leadership.  In what ways is a national philosophy important? (Explain the importance of a national philosophy.) It guides the nation towards achievement of set goals. It serves as a motivating factor for the citizens to work collectively. It helps make citizens focused and to have a purpose. It gives meaning to national endeavors and aspirations. It is a yardstick to evaluate national activities and undertakings. It gives a nation an identity. It enhances proper utilization of national resources. It facilitates equitable distribution of national resources. It promotes national unity and integration. It encourages patriotism and positive nationalism. Identify three national philosophies that are used in Kenya. African socialism, Harambee, Nyayoism Harambee and Nyayoism are closely related.                         AFRICAN SOCIALISM  What is African Socialism? (Explain the meaning of African socialism as presented in Sessional Paper NO.10 Or: What is African Socialism according to Sessional Paper NO.10?) African socialism is an African philosophy coined by KANU in its manifesto of 1963 after Kenya’s attainment of independence. In 1965, the ideas of the 1963 KANU manifesto were identified and published as sessional paper NO.10 titled African Socialism and its Application to Planning in Kenya. According to sessional paper NO.10, African socialism is a system that is neither imported from nor a blueprint of any foreign country or ideology. It is a positively African system that encourages political, economic and social values essential in African society, capable of incorporating useful and comfortable techniques from whatever source. Describe/explain the major conditions that  African Socialism set off to fulfill with regard to sessional paper NO.10.  It must draw on the best of African traditions. It must be adaptable to new and rapidly changing circumstances. It must not rest its success on a satellite relationship with any other country or group of countries. Explain the factors that influenced the adoption of African Socialism in Kenya. (Explain the reasons why African Socialism was adopted in Kenya. Or: What were the motives for adoption of African Socialism in Kenya? or: Explain why Kenyan nationalist leaders adopted African Socialism.) Desire to create a new society, different and free from the colonial one. Desire for a just and humane society in which all were considered equal before the law. Recognition of the traditional practice of national social responsibility, with power equally shared among and for the benefit of all Kenyans. To ensure equitable distribution of resources and freedom to own property. Desire for a united and free Kenya where individual rights and freedoms will be granted through a democratic political system.  Identify the objectives of the Kenyan society according to Sessional paper NO.10. Human dignity and freedom. High, growing and equitably distributed income per capita. Freedom from want, disease and exploitation. Political equality. Equal opportunities. Social justice. What are the features of African Socialism? (Describe/explain the features of African Socialism. Or: Explain the policies that characterize African Socialism.) According to sessional paper no.10, African socialism is characterized by the following policies: Political democracy, in which all are free and equal. Mutual social responsibility, derived from African communalism, in which people work to serve others and not for personal gain. Free and varied ownership, E.G free enterprise, nationalism and partnership. Diffusion of ownership whereby economic powers should not be concentrated on a few people. Equality, to be attained in resource use by having a range of controls to ensure that property is used in the interest of the society. Progressive Taxation, adopted to ensure equal distribution of wealth and income. These are the main ones among many other policies of African socialism as contained in sessional paper  NO.10, all of which have both long term and short-term objectives, most of which have already been achieved. In what ways is African Socialism important? (Explain the importance of African Socialism. Or: Explain how African Socialism has contributed to social and economic development in Kenya.) African Socialism is applied to planning in various areas. It has contributed immensely to social and economic development in Kenya, which makes it important in the following ways: It encouraged unity and peaceful co-existence. It has promoted mutual social responsibility through self reliance and hard work. It has helped ensure respect for the rights and freedoms of citizens. It has promoted African culture, based on African traditions. It has boosted fairness and justice through strategies such as District Focus for Rural Development. It has promoted development of the cooperative movement, which has speeded up social and economic growth. It has improved social development in education and health. Education has assisted in achieving social needs. It has promoted agriculture by addressing the problem of land ownership, whereby the landless were settled in settlement schemes as both small and large scale farmers, mainly of cash crops like coffee were encouraged through various incentives. It promoted the policy of africanization as Africans replaced foreigners in commercial and industrial development. It has promoted the democratic process in governance through activities that encourage participation of all citizens in governing their country. What role has African Socialism played in the democratic process in Kenya? (How has African Socialism promoted the democratic process in Kenya?) African Socialism has promoted the democratic process in governance through activities that encourage participation of all citizens in governing their country such as: The electoral process. Establishment of a multiparty system of government. Growth of the civil society. Free print and electronic media. Civic education. Frequent, free and fair elections. HARAMBE What is Harambe? Harambe is a Kiswahili slogan that

The need for cooperation in Africa stems from the desire of the peoples of Africa to liberate themselves of exploitation and domination of Africa by foreigners, particularly from Western Europe, which dates back to the 15th century when scientific innovation in Europe inspired exploration voyages.                       PAN AFRICANISM Define Pan Africanism. (What is Pan Africanism?) Pan Africanism is a movement that aims at uniting all peoples of African descent. It stands for the unity and advancement of all Africans and is a manifestation of African protest against universal discrimination of black people by acknowledging their right to self determination and calling for the treatment of Africans with dignity as equals in all parts of the world. Trace the origin of Pan Africanism. Pan Africanism started in the Americas in the 19th century as a result of the dispersal of black peoples over much of the Americas and the Caribbean through Trans-Atlantic slave trade. Africans were despised and ridiculed based on their skin colour as well as their hard and kinky hair and were convinced that they could find true friendship, understanding, brotherhood and a home over in Africa. Since Africa too had been colonized and humiliated by European powers at the beginning of the 20th century, black peoples in the Americas and West Indies joined those of Africa in the Pan African movement. Even after independence, many Africans saw the need to remain united amidst neocolonialism. Identify the factors that led to Pan Africanism. (Explain the factors that gave rise to Pan Africanism.) The following factors gave rise to Pan Africanism: Many Africans were brought together by their shared suffering in slavery. In the Americas, Africans shared similar experiences of racial discrimination. During the colonial period, Africans were subjected to many ills. Economic exploitation since the raw materials and other resources got from Africa only benefited the colonialists as indigenous Africans remained with nothing. Explain the suffering shared by Africans during slavery. (What suffering did Africans experience/undergo during slavery? Or: Explain the shared suffering by which Africans were brought together during slavery.) They suddenly found their status changed from that of freedom to slavery. They were forcibly removed from the comfort of their homes and families and transported to strange lands. The violence involved in the capture caused serious injuries, destruction of property and loss of life. Many times, even siblings were separated as they were shared among different slave traders. The long march from the interior to the coast of West Africa, where they were loaded into waiting ships, was traumatizing. At the coast, the weary slaves were paraded, named and branded like animals after being sold to the highest bidder, who then transported them across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas in terrible conditions. The ships were overcrowded as the merchants packed in as many slaves as possible. Many slaves died on route to the Americas. To prevent slave riots in the ships, metal chains were used to tie up the slaves. Water and sanitary facilities were scarce during most of the voyages. This made many slaves to jump into the Atlantic Ocean and face the sharks rather than proceed with the journey. On arrival in the Americas, slaves were stripped naked and paraded in the market-place like commodities for prospective buyers. The experience was most humiliating as the prospective buyers sorted out the strong ones who fetched a better price for the sellers. Those purchased were taken to the cotton, Sugarcane and tobacco plantations, homes, mines and sites for public works (to construct roads, railways and factories). Explain the ills that Africans were subjected to during colonial rule. (In what ways were Africans mistreated during colonial rule? Or: Explain the ills/mistreatment that characterized colonial rule in Africa. Or: In what ways did Africans suffer during colonial rule? Or: Explain the suffering experienced by Africans during colonial rule.) They lost land to colonial powers. They were removed from their ancestral land. The most arable land was grabbed by the few European settlers while the Africans were settled in harsh arid and semi-arid areas. They were subjected to forced labour. For instance, in Belgian Congo (now the Democratic Republic of Congo), the colonialists chopped off the limbs of Africans who refused to collect the wild rubber. Imposition of many heavy taxes on Africans, E.G Poll tax, Hut tax and Breast tax. Poor (low) wages and poor working conditions. Discrimination, particularly through racial segregation. Corporal punishment. Rape and murder. Restrictions on movement and assembly. Explain the aims/purpose of the Pan African movement. (Explain the objectives of the Pan African movement.) To unite all peoples of African origin in the struggle for emancipation from social discrimination and colonial rule. To challenge the ideology of White Race Supremacy, on which European colonization was based. Ø To improve the conditions of Africans in the Diaspora and in the African continent. To restore the dignity of black peoples. To create a forum through which protests against European colonization and racial discrimination would be channeled. To fight Neocolonialism in Africa. Analyse/explain development of Pan Africanism. United in humiliation and grief, the Africans in the Diaspora came to view themselves more and more as having a common history. Africa assumed a new significance to them. It was their only source of hope as it gave them identity and pride. In the 19th century, there were economic developments that led to the introduction of machines, which replaced human (slave) labour, causing slaves to be freed by their masters. The British began antis Slave-trade and antislavery campaigns in 1807 and 1833. This was closely followed by the American civil war over whether or not to continue slavery. A new spirit grew among black men such as Martin Delaney, Alexander Crummell, Bishop James Johnson, Wilmot blyden, Bishop Turner, Henry Sylvester Williams, Dr W E B Du Bois, Marcus Moziah Garvey, George Padmore, Booker T. Washington, Dr Kwame Nkruma and Leopold Sedar Senghor.  These Pan Africanists began to travel widely, visiting Africa and writing on African issues,

What is International Relations? International Relations refers to the co-operation or interaction between individuals or groups of nations of the world. Into what levels could International Relations be categorised  These can be categorized into: Economic relations, which involve trade and other commercial activities among nations I.e. exchange of goods as well as giving of foreign loans and grants. Diplomatic relations, essential in settlement of disputes and promotion of commercial activities among nations. Such relations are regulated by exchange of Ambassadors or High Commissioners, who serve as Go-Betweens, encouraging international co-operation. Political relations, which involve cooperation between countries with similar political systems or ideologies. Socio-cultural relations, by which countries understand and appreciate each other’s culture by exchanging dance-trios, musicians, acrobats, athletes, sports teams, theatre groups, etc. What are the benefits of International Relations? Economic growth in the world due to expanded international trade. Financial and technical assistance to developing nations by the developed ones through exchange of skills, knowledge and technology, which have speeded up industrial development. Enhancement of peace and security due to policies geared towards peaceful settlement of disputes, reducing the threat of war. Promotion of world understanding through cultural exchange. Collective solution of global problems such as desertification, armament, environmental pollution and global warming. Identify two types of international organizations There are two types of international organizations. These are: International Governmental organizations (I G O), which are created by two or more sovereign states such as the United Nations Organization, the Commonwealth, the Nonaligned Movement and the African Union. International Nongovernmental Organizations (NGO), which are created by individual or private organizations such as The International Red Cross, Amnesty International and Transparency International. By what criterion could International Governmental organizations be categorised? International governmental organizations can be categorized according to their membership or purpose as follows: Which may be global, regional or otherwise defined. Global organizations, which have a worldwide membership e.g. the League of Nations and the United Nations Organization. Regional International governmental organizations, which are defined by geographical boundaries, e.g. the East African Community, the Economic Community of West African States, etc. International governmental organizations with a broad purpose, e.g. the United Nations Organization, whose mandate includes health, security and environment. International Governmental organizations with a limited purpose e.g. the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), whose mandate is limited to security concerns of their member states. Explain the role of International organizations. Provision of member states with a forum to consult and tackle problems of concern. Acting as regulators in their fields to ensure the welfare of humankind. For instance, the World Health Organization (W H O) regulates the health sector through immunization, vaccination and other Prevention campaigns. Enhancement of peace and security through peace-keeping missions, response to disasters and provision of assistance to war victims. Charity and facilitation of equitable distribution of resources in the world. For instance, the International Monitory fund (IMF) and the World Bank advance loans to developing nations.   THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANIZATION The United Nations Organization (U N O) is an association of independent nations, established to promote and maintain international peace and security. Its membership is open to all nations, regardless of their political and ideological beliefs, differences in economic systems or levels of development, etc. Analyse the origin/formation of the United Nations Organization (U N O). (Explain the origin of the United Nations Organization). The formation of the U N O was preceded by a series of conferences as follows: On 12th June 1941 in London, the Inter-Allied declaration to work together with other freed peoples both in times of war and peace was signed. On 12th August 1941 in a meeting in the USA, US PRESIDENT: Franklin D. Roosevelt and Prime Minister Winston Churchill of the UK proposed a set of principles for international collaboration in maintaining peace and security. This led to the signing of the Atlantic Charter, which pledged respect for human freedom, allowed all nations the freedom to choose the forms of government they preferred and provided that no territory should change hands after war without the consent of its people. At a meeting in Washington on 1st January 1942, the declaration by United Nations was signed by the representatives of twenty-six allied nations that were fighting against the Axis powers, who proclaimed their support for the Atlantic Charter and pledged to continue fighting together against the Axis Powers. This marked the first use of the term United Nations, which was devised by President Roosevelt in reference to the twenty-six nations that assembled for that meeting. On 30th October 1943 in Moscow, the governments of the USSR, the UK and China signed a declaration in which they called for an early establishment of an international organization to maintain peace and security and to regulate the postwar period. This goal was reaffirmed on 1st December 1943 when the leaders of the USA, the UK and the USSR met in Tehran: Iran. At a conference held at Dumbarton Oaks Estate in Washington: USA from 21st September to 7th October 1944, the representatives of the USSR, UK, USA and China agreed on the aims, structure and functions of World organization. This was the first blue-print of the United Nations Organization. At a conference in Yalta: Ukraine on 11th February 1945, US president Roosevelt, UK prime minister Churchill and USSR Prime minister Joseph Stalin declared their resolve to establish a general international organization to maintain peace and security. On 25th April 1945 in San Francisco: USA, delegates from fifty nations met for the United Nations conference on international organization and drew up the United Nations Charter, which was unanimously adopted on 25th June 1945. The U N O began its official functions on 24th October 1945 after ratification of its charter by the USSR, USA, UK, China and France. That is why the United Nations’ day is celebrated every 24th of October. The UNO took over the League of Nations’ mandate I.E maintenance of peace and security and prevention of outbreak of another World war. The headquarters of