November 26, 2022

This is the process by which people are attracted to live in towns or large settlements. An urban centre is any area   with a human population of 20,000 people or more. Early Urbanization. Some of the early urban centres in Africa included Cairo, Meroe/Merowe and Kilwa. Factors that influenced development of urban centres in Africa. Existence of transport routes-Meroe/Merowe located at an intersection of transport routes. Availability of water for irrigation which increased food production and influenced growth of towns e.g. Cairo. Industrial development –areas of industries grew up as towns since they attracted laborers e.g. Cairo. Commercial activities like trade-location along trade routes. Strategic location which ensured security and thus ample growth e.g. Kilwa. Growth of religion –some grew rapidly because they were religious centres. Mining –led to development of towns’ e.g. Meroe, Johannesburg. This is the capital city of Egypt. The city was founded in 969 AD when the conquerors from Tunisia, ‘The Fatimid Dynasty’ invaded and conquered Egypt Factors for the growth of Cairo.  The Nile River provided water for domestic use and was also a means of transport. This enabled Cairo to grow. Availability of water for irrigation which increased food production and influenced growth of Cairo. Industrial development –various industries developed in Cairo. Food processing industries and construction works. The industries attracted migrants from rural areas. Fertile Nile Valley. the Valley had adequate rainfall and the river always carried silt which it deposited downstream to provide The Suez Canal which was opened in 1869 opened a new trade route which encouraged the arrival of thousands of Europeans. Commercial, administrative and public buildings were constructed during this time. Commercial activities like trade-location along trade routes. The Strategic location along the Nile attracted caravans which would pass through Cairo from North, west and Central Africa. The opening of the Aswan High Dam in 1902 enhanced food production through irrigation thus influencing Cairo’s growth. The effects of the two world wars which disrupted Egypt’s trade with other countries thus compelling her to find ways of substituting imports. This boosted industrialization Cairo is a cultural centre being home to treasures preserved from the early Egyptian civilization and Islamic culture in their museums. ‘The city of a thousand Minarets’. Cairo also grew as a centre of education and medicine. Several institutions of higher learning such as the University of Cairo, American University and Azar University contributed to this. Functions of Cairo. It was a national capital and a political centre of the Arab world. It serves as the transport and commercial centre of North Africa and the Middle East. It is a recreational centre housing many recreational facilities like stadiums and entertainment halls Cairo has been a historical centre being the house to the Egyptian civilization for over 5000 years Cairo serves as an industrial centre. Many of these developed during the industrialization process. For example, textile, vehicle and communication equipment assembly plants. Cairo faces the following problems today;  High population. Cairo is the largest city in Africa and the Middle East. One fifth of Egypt’s population stays in Cairo. In 1988, her population was 11 million. Scarcity of food. The high population in the city has caused food shortage. The number of unemployed people in Cairo is increasing every year mainly due to the high rate of migration to the city and the natural population increase. Housing problems. Between the Nile and the main airport, between 250,000 to 900,000 poor people have put up shanties. This area is commonly reffered to as the ‘city of Death’. e) Traffic jams. Pollution from the industries, vehicle exhaust, desert storms and garbage burning. High crime rate. This is mostly due to the high unemployment level Solutions to the problems facing Cairo. The food shortage problem is being tackled through reclaiming land for agriculture. The Aswan high Dam provides water for irrigation. The housing problem is being addressed by constructing industries in the suburbs to reduce the population in the city. Traffic jams have been eased through the launching of the Cairo Metro in 1987, which was Africa’s first subway system, which serves the Ramses station to the north and Helwan area to the south. It conveys 60,000 passengers per hour. Meroe/Merowe. This was the second capital of the kingdom of Kush and emerged as a city in 650 BC. It rose to become an important industrial centre and specifically iron working producing weapons, hunting and farming tools.  Factors for growth of Meroe. Existence of transport routes-Meroe/Merowe was located at an intersection of transport routes (from east via the red sea and from north via Egypt). This promoted trade with other parts of the world. Abundance of wood fuel, from the heavily forested Blue Nile / white Nile intersection area, which was a key to the prosperity of the iron-working industry. Mining –Merowe was located in a region endowed with a lot of iron. Social effects of the growth of Merowe. The Merotic language developed to replace the Egyptian language previously used by the Nubian founders of Merowe. New architectural developments took place in the region. These were characterized by tombs where rulers were buried after death, ruins of temples, palaces and homes. Other industries developed besides the iron working industry. For example, weaving of cotton, cloth and pottery Functions of Meroe during the colonial period. Meroe was a centre of iron working hence an early industrial centre. A mining centre since Meroe had iron ore, which it mined. A religious function since it had many temples where people worshipped their gods. The priests who headed the Meroe church had their headquarters in Meroe. It was a centre of trade. It was an administrative and political centre. Transport centre-major trade routes converged and radiated from Meroe. Factors that led to decline of Merowe. The rise of Axum kingdom of Ethiopia which denied her access to the red sea. The increasing desertification of the region, perhaps due to the rapid deforestation. The city began declining in 350 BC. Kilwa.  The town is among

Industry is defined as the skill of making other products from raw materials. It involves extraction and processing into finished products of raw materials Early Sources of Energy. Energy is the ability to do work. The following are the early sources of energy that can be identified. Wood. Wood developed as a source of energy after the discovery of fire. It was used as follows; Making fire which provides heat to warm people during cold seasons lighting, to cook roots and roast meat, for hunting(bushfires), tool-making to harden tips, means of communication, food preservation Charcoal made from wood fuel provided heat that was used for steaming water to provide steam power for steam engines during the industrial revolution. This is a form of energy still in use today since it is cheaper and easily available. Wind. Wind was used to drive sailing ships during the trade between East African Coast and the Far East Windmills were used in China to grind grain and process foods They were also used to pump water from polders in Netherlands Windmills are also used to generate electricity Windmills are mainly used in areas with fewer trees like in Isiolo, Garissa, Wajir and Mandera However the use of wind as a source of energy is disadvantaged by its being irregular and inconsistent in direction and strength. Water. Water has been harnessed to produce HEP Water was used to turn wooden propellers (water wheels) which in turn turned grindstones to grind grains into flour. In England, it was used in the Textile and paper industry to turn spinning machines In Italy water-powered machines were used to make copper pots, weapons of war, to spin silk and to sharpen various tools Water also is not reliable as a source of energy since the levels may be too low during dry weather for HEP production. Uses of metals in Africa The age of metals in Africa is divided into the Bronze and Iron Age. Man moved from the Stone Age to the age of metals because metals had the following advantages; Metallic tools were more durable. They could not break easily. Cutting edges of metals could be sharpened. Malleable Metals could be heated and reworked into deferent usable designs when need arose Metals are not prone to waste. Broken pieces can be smelted and reworked into useful items. For example a broken spear into an arrow. The following are examples of metals that were used in Africa. Gold. This was the first metal to be used by humankind. It was used in Meroe, Egypt, Wangara in Ghana and in Central Africa. Gold is malleable and therefore it could be easily moulded into the desired shape without smelting it. Its softness however implied that tools made from gold could bend easily. It was also heavy and could not be found everywhere. Uses of Gold. It was used to make ornaments and decorations. In Egypt, it was used to make jewellery like rings, bangles and bracelets. It was used to make utensils, such as plates, vases and drinking vessels. It was used to make swords and flint knife handles among the rich in Egypt. It was used to make coins in Egypt. It was used as a trade item in East, central and west Africa It was used to make weapons such as sword and knife blades. Gold was also a measure of wealth in Egypt. Copper. Though quite soft, copper as harder than Gold and could make better tools. The Egyptians were the earliest people to use copper by 3000 BC. The metal could further be hardened by mixing it with other metals to form alloys during smelting. Uses of copper. Making utensils and containers such as pots and pans. The Egyptians used copper to make axes, tools, Chisels, Pins and fish hooks. It was used to make ornamental bangles, rings, helmets, needles, wire chains and statues. It was used as a medium of exchange in the form of copper bars. It was used to make daggers (weapons). It was used as a trade commodity. Those with copper exchanged it with other goods that they did not have. It was used to make alloys like Bronze and Brass. Bronze. Bronze is a mixture of copper and tin which makes it harder than copper. It was used during the Bronze Age. In Africa Bronze was used among the Yoruba, Dahomey and Asante in Nigeria and in Benin. And also in Egypt. Benin was the centre of Bronze. Uses of Bronze. Making stronger weapons such as shields, spears, arrowheads, swords and daggers. Making sculptures and decorations. For example, in Benin it was used to make objects for religious ceremonies, masks and decorating the king’s palace. It decorated temples, palaces and pyramids in Egypt. Making knives, containers, pans and vases. It was a store of wealth. It was used to make tools, shields and chariots. Disadvantages of Bronze. The tools lost their sharpness and became blunt quickly since the metal was relatively soft. They required constant sharpening. Bronze was not cheap. The mixture of copper and yin had to be acquired through trade thus making bronze expensive. It was difficult to get an appropriate proportion of each of the two metals. Two theories that explain the origin and spread of iron working in Africa are; It was first introduced in North Africa from the Middle East by the Phoenicians and the Assyrians, and then spread to west, East Central and South Africa. The art of iron working probably developed independently in Africa as evidenced by the Archaeological evidence in Buhaya(the oldest iron age site that existed between 5th and 6th C AD ) , North –West of Tanzania. The Buhaya iron is associated with the pottery style known as Urewe-ware The Hittites were the first people to smelt and use iron in around 1500BC. The skill then spread to the Assyrians. The idea then spread to Africa between 400 and 500 BC and became widespread in the Nile Valley. By 5th

Definition This is a Two-way process of reaching mutual understanding, in which participants not only exchange information but also create and share ideas and messages. Communication includes writing, talking and Non-verbal communication (facial expressions, body posture, or gestures. Traditional forms of communication. The methods of communication that were used in the traditional society included; Gestures These are signals or body movements intended to pass a message. The person to whom the gesture is directed must know the meaning of the gesture. It is sometimes referred to as sign language.(a combination of gestures that simulate actions or a sound) Body language. Sometimes gestures are used to enhance and emphasize speech. They are used where silence is required yet communication is vital like in operating theatres, and in traffic control. Verbal communication-language. This is the commonest form of communication among human beings involving the use of sound (spoken language) in combination with some gestures or alone, to express messages There are over 6000 distinct languages world today. Signals. The use plants on the roadsides, the shaving of hair, physical marks on one’s body or property are means through which communication is passed to others. Fire and smoke signals. Fire and smoke signals were used to send quick and urgent messages. Fire and smoke signals were coded such that strangers could not interpret the message correctly. They were commonly used in warning people of an impending danger. The Jews used fire signals (torch light) to proclaim their feast days on mount Olives. Fire and smoke signals were always sent at night. Advantages of using fire and smoke signals. Fire and smoke signals Conveyed messages faster than a messenger. Confidentiality of messages was upheld since the messages were coded and could not be interpreted by strangers. It was a cheap method of passing a message. Disadvantages of fire and smoke signals Messages could not be sent over long distances. Ranges of messages passed were limited. It was restricted by weather conditions/smoke is useless in cloudy and misty days. It is difficult to set fire in wet conditions. Smoke could be blown by wind. It was of little use if no one was on the look out to see and interpret. Drumbeats. In drumbeating as a means of communication, each beat was coded for relaying different messages. For example there were different beats for ceremonies, announcing funerals, meetings, declaration of war, arrival of strangers and impending attack. Once the initial beat was heard, the other drummers could pick up the beat in different areas thus spreading the message very quickly. Advantages of drumbeating. Drumbeats could relay a wide range of messages-different beats could convey different messages. E.g. death, danger, festivities. In most cases drum beating could be used at any time both day and night whereas smoke signals could only be used during the day. Drum beats relayed specific messages whereas smoke relayed general messages. Drum beats could be used all seasons whereas smoke signals could not be used during certain seasons e.g. when it is raining.“ Drumbeats could convey messages over wide areas. Messages by drumbeat were conveyed faster compared to smoke signals. The major disadvantage of drumbeats was that at times it was difficult to differentiate the beats and therefore, the message could not be clearly interpreted thus leading to confusion. Horn blowing  They were used to make public announcements, summon warriors or invite people to an important meeting. This was done by specialists with different tones that passed different messages thus passing a wide range of massages. Screams and cries Screaming was effective mostly on hill or mountain tops because of echoing. There were different ways of screaming in different situations.. Ululations signified feasting or good news like child birth. Running messengers. Sometimes there was use of trust worthy runners for very personal and urgent messages. However the accuracy of the message delivered depended on the memory of the messenger. An Athenian soldier, Phidippides, is remembered in history as a great messenger for covering great distance from Marathon to Athens. Unfortunately, he dropped dead shortly after arrival. The Marathon race is named in his honour. Messengers are still used to deliver messages today although there has been tremendous improvement after invention of writing. Disadvantages of using messengers. Messages could not reach recipients on time since the messengers walked on foot to their destinations. Messengers sometimes forgot the message they were to deliver thus leading to inaccurate messages being passed. Information could be distorted in the process. Sometimes wrong messages were delivered. Messengers could be attacked on the way by wild animals. The distance to be covered by messengers was limited since they walked on foot. However this problem was overcome with improvements in forms of transport. Written messages. The oldest record of writing date back to about 5000years.  Different communities use different symbols and alphabets to write messages. The messages were recorded on scrolls, stone tablets parchment (dried animal skin) or paper. The earliest forms of wring were pictographic and ideographic. Examples of these were the cuneiform of Sumerians and Hieroglyphics of the Egyptians. Cuneiform Writing Scrolls Scrolls are rolls of paper which were rolled around rods of wood or ivory for writing on. They were commonly used among the Egyptians, Romans, Asians, Jews, Greek, Hebrews, Chinese and Japanese. Papyrus Reeds along the Nile were used for making writing material. Pens and brushes were also made from the reeds and the hard part of a feather. The Hebrews used scrolls for their sacred writings. Stone Tablets. The Sumerians wrote on clay tablets. Writing was done on wet clay which, after drying, hardened like a stone and left a permanent impression.. for example, Hammurabi the law giver wrote his laws on stone pillars for all to read and obey. The Ten Commandments were also written on stone tablets. Advantages of written messages. They provided reliable information that was not easily forgotten. Information was stored in that form for future reference. Information could be interpreted into different languages so that it could be

Definition of Transport. Transport is the movement of people and from one place to another. Transportation is usually classified by the medium in which the movement occurs. For example, land, air and water transport. Transport can be categorized into traditional and modern means. Traditional means of transport. The means of transport at this category were land and water evolved. Land transport. People move on land either by walking or by using other human powered transport. People also use domestic animals as a means of transportation Human transport. Human powered transportation included carrying goods on their backs, heads and shoulders. Africans were used as porters during the slave trade. Human porterage still goes on in the modern society. Limitation of human porterage. Human porterage was cumbersome, slow and tiresome. Humans Carry limited amount of goods at particular time.  It is not convenient over long distances. Animal transport. Early human beings used the domesticated animals to carry loads on their backs or pull carts. Such animals are referred to as pack animals. In 500 AD a paddled collar was devised that rested on the animals’ shoulders. In 200 AD saddles were introduced in Egypt. Horse shoes were introduced in 700 AD  Donkey\Ass. The first animals to be used as pack animals; they were used in Egypt as early as 3400bc to carry weight upto 80kg. They were commonly used in the trade between Nubia and South Sudan. In Ukambani today, donkeys are used to fetch water. Oxen. Referred to as draught animals used for ploughing and pulling carts and also transportation of goods and people. Horses. They were first rode but were later trained to pull wagons, chariots and passenger coaches.. in the Roman empire, they carried soldiers during war. (Soldiers on horseback are referred to as cavalry. Disadvantages of horses. It is highly susceptible to diseases. It cannot survive in tsetse fly infected areas. The weight limit of the load it can carry is 120kg They are not suitable in arid and semi-arid areas because they need a lot of water. NB; – horses are mainly reared by the rich as a symbol of high social status. Mules. A crossbreed of a horse and a donkey, they are sterile and carry loads upto 110kg.they are mostly used in mountainous areas in central and southern Europe and in Mexico. Camels. It is referred to as the ship of the desert. What makes a camel ideal in desert transport? It has a unique ability to survive for long without food and water. They have an incredible water storage capacity, they do not sweat lose much moisture. They have broad padded, two toed feet ideal for walking on desert sand. The nostrils have flaps which keep away sand during sandstorms. Its fur is thick enough to protect it from the sweltering desert heat by day and extreme cold conditions at night. The hump contains a lot of fat which the camel uses when it goes without eating Camels were commonly used during the trans-Saharan trade. They are in use in Kenya today among the Galla and Somali carrying weight upto 200kg. Llamas and alpaca. Members of the camel family found in central and south America. They carry load upto 40 kg. Elephants. They are used in Asia to carry people and heavy loads upto 250kg. In India, they were used to transport people and goods during war in 2500BC. In Africa they were used in warfare in 270BC. Water Buffalo.  A member of the cattle family and the only type of buffalo that has been domesticated. The cape buffalo of Africa and the Pygmy buffalo of Philippines have not been domesticated. It is used to pull ploughs and do other heavy work in India and south East Asia. Reindeer. A long-horned deer family breed used in the cold parts of Canada, Sweden and Norway for riding and transportation. It also provides milk, meat, hides and horns. Dogs. Dog types like Bouriers were used to pull small carts and sledges, especially in the Arctic thus making transportation of gods and people easy. Dogs are also used in guiding blind people in sports and as pets at home. Advantages of animal transport. Pack animals can be used in largely inaccessible areas. The Llama, for example is used in the mountainous areas with narrow and meandering paths and steep cliffs. The camel is well adapted for deserts. Animals are cheap to maintain. They attract very little maintenance costs, since only feeding costs are incurred. Pack animals are safe as accidents are rare probably because they do not speed.. Animals help to maintain the ecological balance since they do not interfere with the environment. Pack animals are capable of sensing danger. For example, horses and dogs can sniff out an enemy from a distance. This enhances security as dangerous confrontations with an enemy can easily be avoided. Disadvantages of animal transport. Animal transport is slow and tedious. The animals need to feed and drink along the way. Pack animals may be attacked by wild animals, disease- causing insects such as tsetse-flies and disease. Their movement is limited to the day only and cannot travel at night. They can only carry small loads as compared to vehicles. Some pack animals such as donkey are stubborn when tired and heavily loaded. The camel is only suited for the desert. Pack animals use is limited to short distances as they fatigue when they travel for long. The wheel. The wheel was invented in sumeria at about 3000bc. By 2500BC, they had invented the spoked wheel used on horse drawn chariots. The chariot was used in Mesopotamia at around 2000BC and later spread to Egypt, Persia, Rome, china, Africa and Europe. The cart or wagon pulled by humans or animals was the first wheeled vehicle. The wheeled wagons and carts created the need for roads Today many types of wheels are in use. For example, the steering wheel for cars, turbines for jet engines and gyroscopes used in the automobile

Definition of trade Trade refers to the exchange of goods and services between people or countries. Man must have started trading soon after the evolution of the homo sapien sapiens. Trade was occasioned by the existence of varying environmental and climatic conditions. Trade arises from the basic human needs such as satisfying food requirements Methods of trade.  There are two main methods of trade; Barter trade Currency trade. 1. Barter trade This is the exchange of gods for gods. It is one of the earliest forms of trade that was even taking place during the reign of King Solomon of the Bible. Barter trade emerged from the natural needs of the people. For example, among the Kenyan pre-colonial communities such as the Maasai who kept livestock but did not have grains which the neighbouring kikuyu possessed. Barter trade sometimes even took place within the same community where some people had some special talents that others did not possess. E.g ironsmiths A form of barter trade known as ‘silent trade’ was practiced in some areas where the two involved communities could not speak the same language. For example, it existed between Morocco and Carthage in 400 BC. Barter trade can still be witnessed in the modern society. For example, Kenya exchanges tea and coffee with petroleum, chemicals and machinery from other countries. Barter trade however has the following disadvantages; It may involve bulky goods in the transaction. There may lack double coincidence. It is difficult always to get the goods one wants. Lack of standards of deferred payment; if a good was borrowed, it would be difficult to decide whether the same value was returned later or not. Some goods cannot be sub-divided into smaller units. If one wanted cloth equal to a half a sheep, then he could not divide the sheep into two parts. Lack of store of value for some goods which cannot be stored for a long time since they are perishable. E.g. milk, vegetables. Lack of measures of value; a specific quantity of goods cannot be measured vis-à-vis other goods. Advantages of barter system. Poor countries without adequate foreign currencies benefit from it by being able to exchange goods they have for what they do not have. It benefits where money is non-existent. It avoids wastage as demand and supply tend to equate. It promotes interaction hence good relationship, peace and stability especially among traditional African societies. 2.  Currency trade. This is a type of trade that involves the use of money. Money is an item that is mutually recognized as a medium of exchange or a measure of value. In the pre-colonial times items like Gold dust, cloth, copper rods, and iron and cowrie shells were used as a form of currency. Advantages of the use of money in trade. Money is a medium of exchange- it is needed to obtain goods or services. Money as a measure of value enables units of goods to be bought. A specific quantity of goods can be measured Visa- Vis other goods. Money is a standard of deferred (future) payments which allows borrowing and lending to take place. It is a store of value- one is able to defer satisfaction of a want to future times or make provision for one’s want at a future date. It is a means through which immovable property can be transferred. For example when one sells a house in one city to go and dwell in another. Money as a unit of account is used as a calculating medium and assigning prices of goods and services. Money is easily divisible into smaller units. For example, if a product is valued at a lower price, the buyer only pays the agreed cost. The qualities of money and its functions overcome the difficulties of barter. Money however becomes valuable only when those using it have confidence that it will continue to retain its value during the period it is in possession. Technology today has made the use of currency easier. There is the use of Visa Card and Mobile money services like Mpesa and Airtel Money to carry out transactions. Difference between barter trade and trade in which currency is used as a medium of exchange. In barter trade goods are exchanged for goods/in currency trade, there is use of money as a measure of value. In barter trade depends on the existence of a double coincidence of needs but in currency method one meets his needs by the use of money. Items used for barter trade are bulky (some) and inconvenient to handle-and others perishable. Money is not bulky. Local trade. This refers to the exchange of goods between people within the same geographical area such as a village or town. Origin of local trade.  This form of trade took place between groups of people who produced different goods mainly because of varying ecological conditions.  It was motivated by the following factors; Existence of surplus production e.g. where some community’s harvest was excess; they could sell the excess commodity to carter for shortages elsewhere and to avoid wastage. Differences in climate and environmental conditions which affected the type of natural resources available in various places/ not all needs of a particular community can be satisfied by the resources available hence trade. The kikuyu of Nyeri had to go to Mathira for their foodstuff requirements during drought periods. Specialization and improved technology which always creates a need to exchange skills and goods with those who do not have. E.g trade between Mathira kikuyu cultivators and the Mukurwe-ini kikuyu ironmongers and weavers. Some even exchanged skills for money. Population increase making man to begin to supplement his needs by trading with his neighbors. Sometimes, this trade extended even beyond the local community to the neighbouring community. The Abagusii, for example, acquired hides, milk, snake poison, and pottery items from their Luo Neighbours. Some seasonal markets emerged which enabled traders to meet and exchange goods on particular days of the week. Factors that facilitated development of

TOPIC 1 : TRADE – Click to view TOPIC 2 : DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORT – Click to view TOPIC 3 : DEVELOPMENT OF COMMUNICATION – Click to view TOPIC 4 : DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRY – Click to view TOPIC 5 : URBANIZATION – Click to view TOPIC 6 : ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN SOCIETY – Click to view TOPIC 7 : CONSTITUTIONS AND CONSTITUTION MAKING – Click to view TOPIC 8 : DEMOCRACY AND HUMAN RIGHTS – Click to view

What is National Integration? Either: It is the bringing together of different communities into one nation. Or: It is the process of uniting people that live in a country in spite of their diverse culture, religion, race, tribe, occupation and social background. State the importance of National Integration. It brings lasting peace and prosperity. It enables Kenyans to solve the many problems they at times find themselves in. It brings rapid economic and social development. It results in political stability and a feeling of security. It eliminates intercommunal suspicion and enhances nationalism and patriotism. It helps create conditions suitable to attract foreign investment. It provides a national direction, for it sets national goals. It encourages and enhances communication among the people since it involves an official language of communication.                           NATIONAL UNITY What is National Unity? National Unity is bringing together or fully fusing a country‟s citizens into one, enabling each to have a sense of belonging. Name three symbols of national unity in Kenya.  The national flag. The National Anthem. The Coat Of Arms. The Loyalty pledge. National Awards. National holidays. Identify the factors that promote national unity in Kenya. The Constitution, which guarantees equality of opportunity to all citizens. The curriculum (system of education), which encourages children from an early age to develop a feeling of national belonging. Equal distribution of resources by trying to develop the whole country‟s economy. Intermarriage and other intercommunal activities such as games and music festivals in addition to trade and working together. In Kenya, business is transacted through one currency: the Shilling. The national language (Kiswahili), which enables Kenyans to communicate freely and easily. National philosophies (Harambe, African Socialism and Nyayoism), which call on Kenyans to pool their resources together in peace, love and unity in spite of their different ethnic groups. The National Flag, the symbol of our nation. The Kenya Coat of Arms, which symbolizes our existence as a sovereign state. The national Anthem, which reminds us of our peaceful and harmonious existence. The Loyalty pledge, a reminder of our loyalty to the president and our nation. National awards, which are given to Kenyans of outstanding performance in contributing to the country‟s development. Government institutions (the Judiciary, the Executive and the Legislature), which serve all Kenyans equally. . National public holidays and events, which are held throughout Kenya. The institution of the Presidency, which unites all Kenyans, for the president is the Head of state and government. Urbanization, which promotes co-existence and interaction among Kenyans as people from different ethnic groups live together in towns and even intermarry. A centralized system of government. In what ways does the Kenya Constitution promote national Unity? It provides the equality of all Kenyans. Kenyans are bound by one constitution, making it a unifying factor. It guarantees equal opportunities for all Kenyans. It protects individuals against any form of discrimination as provided for in the Bill of Rights. It provides for a unitary government under one president. Explain the factors that undermine national unity in Kenya. Religious conflicts, caused by interdenominational, denominational, sectarian and interreligious differences, based on doctrinal differences and the struggle for leadership. This has led to civil wars in such places as Sudan and Northern Ireland. Ethnicity i.e. the favouring of people from one‟s own ethnic group at the expense of others. Racism and intolerance, whereby citizens choose not to accommodate others or opposing views. Corruption i.e. giving and receiving bribes and abuse of office. Divisive politics, whereby parties tend to divide people into camps based on party affiliation, even over matters of national interest. Economic inequality whereby the wealthy class own a large part of agricultural and industrial business and hold key posts in the civil service, the military, educational institutions and the industries as others remain below the poverty line, victimised by unemployment, unequal income distribution, lack of land and adverse climatic conditions. Cultural and traditional conflicts, whereby some alien practices may conflict with traditional African ones e.g. style of dressing and the issue of equality between men and women. Poverty, which leads to antisocial acts such as theft and violence. Political ideologies i.e. different political views, leading to use of physical or verbal violence. Nepotism i.e. favouring one‟s relatives. CONFLICT What is conflict? Conflict could be defined as: Disagreement between people, based on opposing views or interests. Armed struggle between people or soldiers. Identify the levels of conflict. Conflicts range from ordinary family level to national and international levels. These are: Individual versus individual. Group versus group. Individual versus state. Group versus state. State versus state. Identify the aspects of conflict. There are three main aspects of conflict, namely: Social aspects, i.e. disputes involving members of a family, clan or tribe, religious groups and educational institutions. Political aspects i.e. disputes between political parties. Economic aspects i.e. disputes between employers and employees. Explain the factors that led to conflict in Kenya after independence. After Kenya got her independence, conflicts arose from economic-related factors, such as: Market economy, which might contribute to conflict between trading and industrial groups, especially under the free market policy. Contractual conflict, mostly caused by contracted companies who fail to complete work to the standards agreed upon, or contracted agents who fail to pay for work or service rendered. Kenya and the world, whereby conflicts may arise between Kenya and her neighbours over diverse issues, such as use of natural resources, influx of refugees from neighbouring countries, or national security issues. Trading policies, especially where Kenya or her neighbours impose tariffs that are perceived to harm the countries‟ trading interests. Conflicts that involve Kenya with foreign donor agencies, lending agencies and other international organizations.   CONFLICT RESOLUTION What is conflict-resolution? Conflict-resolution is: The process of settling disputes. The working out of a settlement to defuse the conflict. Identify the methods of resolving conflict in Kenya. Methods of resolving conflict depend on the type, nature, magnitude and level of understanding of the parties or persons in disagreement, such as: Arbitration, whereby arbitrators mediate and

What is citizenship? Citizenship is an individual‟s membership or belonging to a country. Who is a Kenyan citizen? (What is Kenyan citizenship?) A Kenyan citizen is a person who has a legal right to belong to Kenya. Kenyan citizenship refers to all people that belong to Kenya as a country. Describe three types of citizenship in Kenya. (In what three ways can one acquire Kenyan citizenship?) There are three ways of becoming a Kenyan citizen. These are: This refers to anyone born in Kenya, but whose parents are not diplomats representing foreign governments. One can apply to become a Kenyan citizen. For instance, one from a foreign country who gets married to a Kenyan citizen is entitled to Kenyan citizenship once he or she applies for registration. If one who has stayed in Kenya for more than five years applies for Kenyan citizenship, he or she becomes a Kenyan by Naturalization. Explain the conditions that one must fulfil in order to become a naturalized citizen of Kenya. Citizenship by naturalization is attained after fulfilling the following conditions: Be above 21 years of age. Must have lived in Kenya for at least one year before the date of application. Besides, one must have lived in Kenya for at least four of seven years preceding his or her application. Be of good character. Have good knowledge of Kiswahili. Show intention to remain resident in Kenya once registered. Renounce one‟s previous citizenship. Explain the circumstances under which the government deprives one of Kenyan citizenship. (Identify the circumstances under which a person could lose Kenyan citizenship.) The government of Kenya has the right to grant or to deny citizenship, even if one has fulfilled the required conditions. A Kenyan may be deprived or stripped of citizenship in extreme cases, such as: If he or she assists an enemy state in the event of war. If one is sentenced to more than twelve years imprisonment within five years of his or her registration or naturalization. When one fraudulently obtains citizenship. If one has been out of the country for more than five years without having registered with the Kenyan embassy. disloyalty to the country by way of speech or actions. State the constitutional rights of a Kenyan citizen. The Bill of Rights (chapter 5 of the Kenya Constitution) spells out rights and freedoms to which a Kenyan citizen is entitled. These are: the right to life. Life should not be intentionally ended. Personal freedom (the right to liberty). One should not be unjustly confined or arrested. Freedom of conscience. One is free to think or believe as they desire and is free to belong to a faith, religion or denomination of their choice. One is also free to construct and maintain places of religious instruction at their own cost. Freedom of expression (Freedom of speech). However, one is not allowed to defame others, disclose state secrets or incite others to unlawful acts. Freedom of association and assembly. One is free to form or join groups or associations of one‟s choice as long as they are not involved in criminal activities. Freedom of movement. Every Kenyan has the right to travel and move freely within the country as long as they do not trespass onto private property and gazetted areas such as Statehouse, military installations, national parks and government buildings. This freedom may be limited when curfews are imposed or when and where security zones are created. The right to equal treatment (freedom from discrimination), especially at public institutions such as schools and hospitals. The right to acquire and own property, except when the state requires the property for public use or in case of a court order for settlement of a debt. when property is taken by the state for public use, the owner must be compensated. Freedom from arbitrary search and entry. Law enforcement officials must produce a valid search warrant before searching or entering an individual‟s premises in the course of an investigation. Freedom from torture (protection from all forms of inhuman treatment), especially during an investigation at home or in public. Freedom from slavery and forced labour. This is to the exclusion of labour as a result of a prison sentence or that rendered as duty by members of the armed forces e.g. road maintenance. Under what circumstances could a Kenyan’s right to life be waived? (Explain the circumstances in which a Kenyan could be deprived of the right to life.) In Kenya, waiving or deprivation of the right to life is acceptable on occasions such as: Self defence or protection of property. In the process of lawful arrest. In the process of preventing a lawfully detained person from escaping. In the process of suppressing a riot, rebellion or mutiny. When preventing one from committing a crime or felony. in war. In case of death sentence by a court of law. State the circumstances when a Kenyan’s arrest is lawful. In Kenya, one may be arrested: to carry out a court order. To bring one to a court of law. If one is suspected of committing or is about to commit a criminal offence. To contain the spread of an infectious disease or to protect and treat a person suspected to be mentally ill or a drug addict. To secure education or welfare for a minor (an under-age). Discuss the factors that may lead to limitation of the rights and freedoms of an individual in Kenya. (Explain the limits to a citizen‟s rights in Kenya.) In the pursuit of our rights, we must not infringe on those of others by endangering them or causing them discomfort. We must enjoy our rights within the existing law, without deviation. Enjoyment of our rights ought not work against national interests. What are the responsibilities/duties of a Kenyan citizen? obeying the law by respecting the rights of others in pursuing one‟s own. Safeguarding the law of the land by giving information about crime to the relevant authority. Valid documentation i.e. acquiring and having lawful documents

Describe the sources of Historical information about the East African coast before the 7th century AD. The Greco-Roman documentary, which only makes an indirect reference to the east African coast before the establishment of international contact since it is a product of international trade. The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea a book written about 120AD by a Greek commercial agent in Egypt. This document describes the trade between the African and foreign merchants at the coast. The writing by Claudius Ptolemy (a Greek scholar) in the 2nd century AD, which entailed geography and describes commercial activities at the coast. Ptolemy attempted to draw the first map of Africa. Documents by Arab merchants such as Ibn Batuta and Al-Masudi as well as some Swahili histories and chronicles such as the history of Pate, Lamu, Mombasa and Kilwa. The existing archaeological evidence in east Africa, which include the remains of pottery, iron tools, beads, coins and others that prove the presence of international trade between  the coast and the outside world. The Christian Topography by Cosmos Indico-Pletustes, which was written in the first half of the 6th century AD and supports Persian domination of Indian Ocean Trade. Oral traditions, which were used and relied on for a long time, particularly by communities that lacked the skill of writing. Explain how/why the east African coast has been subjected to a long history of commercial contact, cultural influence and population movements to and from lands across the Indian Ocean. The coast was easily accessible from the sea, which eased contact with the outside world. Development of a suitable marine technology (boat making), which boosted voyages. Harnessing of the winds and currents of the Indian Ocean, by which traders knew when to travel to and from the coast. Describe the earliest visitors to the east African coast. The Greeks, who were attracted to the trade in ivory. The Romans, who increased demand for oriental (eastern Asian) commodities in the Mediterranean region and were determined to break Arab monopoly over oriental trade. They gave wine, various kinds of glass and wheat to the coastal people in return for ivory, slaves and rhinoceros horns. The Chinese, whose coins and pottery have been found at several places at the coast. They came for gold, ivory, leopard skins, tortoise shells and rhinoceros horns. The Persians, who together with the Arabs, settled down and started towns such as Lamu, Mombasa and Zanzibar.  They were later driven away by the Arabs who occupied all the coastal towns. The Arabs, whose settlement at the coast affected the lives of the inhabitants they found in many ways, which makes them the most important of all visitors at the east African coast. Explain why the Arabs were the most influential of all early visitors to the east African coast. They were keen and very skillful in trade and sailing. They were more accustomed to the Monsoon winds than any other people. They were good navigators. The ports of southern Arabia were good calling places on the journey between the East and the West. The deep harbours at the east African coast were ideal for their ships to anchor, refuel and get them supplies.   To the east African coast Give reasons for the coming of the Arabs to the East African coast. To trade and control commercial activities along the east African coast. Some came as refugees fleeing religious and political persecutions in Arabia. They came to spread their religion Islam. To explore the east African coast. To establish settlements along the east African coast. Apart from Arabia, identify other places that early visitors to the east African coast came from. Egypt, Syria, India, Srilanka, Maldive islands, Spice Islands, Greece, China, Persia, Italy, Burma, State the factors that enabled the Arabs to come to the east African coast. The Monsoon winds, which helped them sail. Accessibility to the coast by sea. Availability of Dhows and sailing ships. Funds to finance trade across the sea. Existence of skilled personnel who could sail the ships across the water over long distances.   TRADE BETWEEN THE EAST AFRICAN COAST AND THE OUTSIDE WRLD Explain the factors that led to development of trade between the east African coast and the outside world. Availability of trade items, which were in high demand. Uneven distribution of resources. For instance, some had ivory, others had cotton and some others had none. Enterprising merchants in both the foreign lands and the east African coast. These promoted trade links. Existence of local trade even before the foreign merchants came to the east African coast, which provided a base for the development of Indian Ocean trade. Accessibility of the east African coast by sea. The Monsoon winds, which facilitated vessel movement to and from the coast. Peace and political stability at the east African coast in addition to security given by the Sultans to traders, particularly Arab traders. Natural harbours along the coast, which ensured safe docking of vessels for fuelling and off-loading supplies. Advancement of the ship building industry in Europe. Credit facilities given by Indian Banyans, which made many more people to join the trade. Describe the organization of trade between the east African coast and the outside world. Indian Ocean trade attracted the Romans, Greeks, Persians, Arabs, etc. Other traders came from Burma, Thailand, Maldive islands and Spice Islands. A variety of imports and exports were exchanged. Foreign traders‟ dhows and ships depended on the Monsoon winds that blew their vessels to and from the east African coast. Barter system was used in initial stages but coins were later used as a medium of exchange. Middlemen in the trade were the Arabs and the Swahili, who organized caravans to the interior, where they acquired and sold goods. Trade was financed by the Arabs. Later, the Indian Banyans (money lenders) provided capital. The traders were given protection by the Sultan of Zanzibar. As trade developed, foreign traders settled along the east African coast, leading to establishment of coastal towns such as