November 27, 2022

To ease the burden that  British taxpayers had to put up with at the initial stages of conquest and occupation of Kenya, Britain had to make Kenya economically viable, having set up a system of administration over the colony. Europeans from Britain, south Africa, Australia and Canada were encouraged to settle on the vast “empty” land, followed by establishment of policies and structures to facilitate changes in basic infrastructure, agriculture, education and health.              THE KENYA-UGANDA RAILWAY The Kenya-Uganda railway was built between 1896-1901, with George Whitehouse as the Chief Engineer. Work on the railway was done by British and Indian personnel since the local people could not provide skilled labour. Though costly, the construction of the railway had a tremendous impact on the administration and economic development of colonial Kenya. State the reasons for the construction of the Kenya-Uganda railway. (Explain why the KenyaUganda railway was constructed. Or: Explain why the British Government built the Kenya-Uganda railway.) Enormous economic potential in the Kenya & Uganda region. Missionaries‟ need for easy movement into the interior. Enhancement of British access to Uganda, which, to them, was a strategic territory. The need to replace slave trade with legitimate trade. The need for fast movement of troops to trouble sports within the region. To prove that the territory was now firmly and effectively under the British crown. The Berlin Act, which demanded that colonizers develop the colonies. In 1901, the railway reached Kisumu, having passed through Nairobi in 1899. Identify the feeder lines that were laid out to make the railway network a meaningful mode of accessing the interior in Kenya. The Nairobi-to-Thika branch (1914). The Konza-to-Magadi branch (1915). Voi-to-Moshi (1918). Rongai-to-solai (1925). Ø Eldoret-to-Jinja (1927). Gilgil-to-Nyahururu (1929). The Thika-to-Nanyuki branch (1930). The Kisumu to Butere branch (1930). By 1948, the Kenya-Uganda railway network had been linked with the Tanganyika network to form the East African Railways. Explain the problems experienced in the construction of the Kenya-Uganda railway. (Explain the factors that undermined the building of the Kenya-Uganda railway.) Additional costs and delays due to heavy reliance on British and Indian rather than local personnel. The British had to import Coolies, clerks and craftsmen from India to provide the necessary manpower and expertise. Scarcity of food, water, medicine and other essential supplies. Ragged and expansive unfamiliar terrain across the highlands into the Rift Valley. Descending the Eastern Escarpment and ascending the Western Escarpment caused engineering problems that took a lot of time to solve. Adverse (dry and hot) climatic conditions across the coastal plains, the Nyika plateau and the Taru desert. These took a heavy toll on the builders due to heat and dehydration. Costly and delayed delivery of the needed building equipment and materials. Tropical diseases like Malaria, Smallpox and the Jigger. Hostility to railway builders by some interior communities, who kept on stealing the materials and attacked railway builders. E.g. the Nandi stole telegraphic wires and iron bars to make ornaments and weapons. The menace of the Man-eating lions, especially across Tsavo. IMPACT OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE KENYA-UGANDA RAILWAY What were the results/consequences of the construction of the Kenya-Uganda railway? (Explain the impact/effects of the building of the Kenya-Uganda railway.) Rapid expansion and promotion of British administration. With it, troops could easily be sent to the trouble spots. Influx of Asians into Kenya, who embarked on commercial activities along the railway line. Ø Rural-Urban migration and rise of African enterprises e.g. hawking and charcoal selling. Ø Development and expansion of other forms of transport and communication, including telegraph and roads. Increased cultural and social interaction among different races. Rise and growth of urban centres like Nairobi, Kisumu and Nakuru, some of which mushroomed as railway stations or residential areas. Rapid growth of trade between the interior, the coast and the outside world. Easy accessibility to the interior, which the railway opened up to the outside world. Rise of the railway as a major source of revenue for the colonial authorities. Influx and settlement of many Europeans in the interior. Creation of jobs for many Africans and Indians. It facilitated the evangelisation work of the Christian missionaries. Rapid development of agriculture and industry. The railway boosted Settler agriculture and growth of agro-based industries like flour milling and milk processing. Massive land alienation, with some communities such as the Maasai and the Nandi being confined in reserves.            SETTLER FARMING IN COLONIAL KENYA The period between 1900-1904 witnessed enormous influx of white settlers into the Kenya highlands, encouraged by the colonial government. WHY THE COLONIAL GOVERNMENT ENCOURAGED WHITE SETTLEMENT IN KENYA A visit to the Kenyan interior by sir Charles Eliot: the British Commissioner to Kenya, who referred to the Kenya highlands as a Whiteman‟s country. The colonial government therefore embarked on making Kenya a “Whiteman‟s country” by encouraging white farmers to form the backbone of Kenya‟s economy. An urgent need to exploit the Kenya highlands for agriculture. To finance the administrative expenses of the colony without involving the British taxpayers. To pay for the construction and maintenance of the railway. To produce raw materials for British industries. To counter Asian influence in Kenya. Suitability of the Kenya highlands for European settlement in terms of climate and soils. FACTORS THAT PROMOTED SETTLER FARMING IN COLONIAL KENYA Various factors enabled the White settlers to establish farms in the Kenya Highlands, such as the following: Adequate rainfall experienced in the Kenya Highlands. Concessions and loans granted to them by the government. Provision of transport facilities such as the Kenya-Uganda and Feeder railway lines and roads. Research services, which were started to support them. Removal of trade tariffs and reduction of Freight charges on import and export of agricultural inputs and products. Access to unlimited cheap labour. Ample land snatched from Africans and given to them by the HOW THE COLONIAL GOVERNMENT FACILITATED SETTLER FARMING IN KENYA Banning of Africans from growing cash crops and keeping exotic animals in order to eliminate any competition for labour, land and markets. Promotion of cooperatives

By 1900, after dividing Africa among themselves, European powers acquired colonies and concentrated on establishing their rule on Africans, who they recruited as soldiers, chiefs and clerks among other capacities of service in maintaining European rule. Name the European powers that had acquired colonies in Africa by 1900. Britain, Germany, France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Describe the administrative systems set up by European powers that had acquired colonies in Africa. Indirect Rule, which was a British policy of administration in which the African traditional chiefs were allowed to rule their people with instructions from British officials. Direct Rule, which was another British system of administration whereby indigenous political and administrative institutions and leaders were replaced with European systems. In it, the British officials ruled directly without intermediaries. Assimilation, which was a French system of administration in which the Africans were to be similar to the French in terms of their culture and other aspects of life. Association, which was another French system of  administration that implied partnership, whereby the French government was to respect the culture of people in her colony and allow them to develop independently rather than force them to adopt the French culture and civilization. European colonial powers governed their colonies through one or a combination of these four systems of administration to facilitate maximum exploitation of the human and natural resources in their respective territories. The Germans ruled for only a short period, then their colonies in Africa were taken over by the League of Nations as Mandated Territories after the First World War. In their rule in Africa, the Germans applied Direct Rule, just like the Dutch and Italians.                   INDIRECT RULE  Define Indirect Rule. (What was Indirect Rule?) Indirect rule was a single Government system in which the native chiefs had clearly defined duties and an acknowledged status equal with British officials. Trace the origin of indirect rule in Africa. (Explain the development of Indirect Rule in Africa. Or: Explain how Indirect Rule started/was introduced in Africa.) Indirect Rule was advanced by Sir Frederick Lugard: the British High Commissioner in the protectorate of Northern Nigeria from 1900-1906AD. In it, the British felt that it was their task to preserve what was good in indigenous institutions while assisting the indigenous people to develop on their own lines. In Kenya and West Africa, the indirect system of government entailed using traditional African rulers to administer at the Local Government level while European administrators occupied the senior positions in the administration of the colony. Apart from ceding power to Africans, Indirect rule was purposed to modernize the traditional chiefs so that the British could use them to introduce some modern practices of governance to Africans without interfering or messing up with African political structures. African cultural practices that were found to be repugnant by the British such as human sacrifice, slavery and slave trade, witchcraft, the murder of twins and mutilation of limbs had to be eliminated. Explain why the British used/applied Indirect rule in Africa. (What were the reasons for use of Indirect Rule in Africa?) It had succeeded in Uganda and India. Extending Direct Rule over distant territories would have been expensive. Britain lacked enough manpower to handle all the administrative responsibilities. Africans under Direct Rule would most likely resist. Britain was keener on her Indian colony than with her African possessions. Traditional African rulers were enthusiastic about and were to acquire new responsibilities in addition to retaining their positions and almost all their powers. British citizens were reluctant to serve in the tropics, which they perceived to be pron to diseases and other physical hardships. Very little funding was set aside for colonial administration by the parent government. Local systems of administration were already established in many African communities. ü Use of the existing traditional political systems helped to cut down on administrative costs. THE BRITISH IN NIGERIA Identify three administrative zones/regions that the Nigerian protectorate initially comprised. (Into what three administrative regions was the Nigerian protectorate first divided?) Initially, the Nigerian protectorate comprised three separately administered regions. These were: The Lagos colony Protectorate, ü The Southern Nigeria Protectorate ü The Northern Nigeria Protectorate. These entities were then amalgamated (merged or joined)  under one administration due to difficulties in administering them separately. In 1906, Lagos was integrated into Southern Nigeria. In 1914, the Northern and Southern protectorates were merged to form one Nigeria Protectorate.   Explain why the British applied/used Indirect Rule in Nigeria. Lack of enough European manpower to effectively control the vast Northern Nigeria protectorate. The Indirect system of government was cost effective, for only a few British officials would be employed, leaving the African traditional leaders to do most of the administrative work at the local level. Indirect Rule helped dilute African resistance to British rule as the local chiefs and elders who had governed during the pre-colonial period retained their positions at the local level. Poor transport and communication network in the vast Nigeria protectorate prevented the few British personnel from carrying out their duties. Indirect Rule had succeeded in Uganda and India. In northern Nigeria, there already existed the well established system of government based on Islamic law. African chiefs easily managed with the poor infrastructure. The Dual Mandate policy was to encourage the development of the colony for its own good and that of Britain. ADMINISTRATION OF NORTHERN NIGERIA Analyse application of Indirect Rule in Northern Nigeria. (Explain how Indirect Rule was applied in Northern Nigeria.) Frederick Lugard: the British High Commissioner for northern Nigeria from  1900AD spearheaded application of Indirect rule in the Northern Nigeria region as follows: The protectorate was under the British High Commissioner answerable to the colonial officer in charge of Northern Nigeria. This High commissioner used the centralized system of government under the Emir‟s rule. For effective rule, the region was divided into smaller administrative units. Nigeria was divided into provinces, each under a British Resident or Provincial Commissioner. The Province was divided into Districts under British District officers. Under the

The colonization of Kenya by the British was a consequence of the European scramble for and Partition of Africa during the second half of the 19th century. The Industrial Revolution was partly responsible for the Scramble.              THE SCRAMBLE FOR AND PARTITION OF EAST AFRICA  In what ways was East Africa important during the scramble for and partition of Africa? In East Africa, Germany and Britain competed for territories. East Africa was particularly important as: It was the source of the River Nile. The east   coast of Africa was strategic along the way to the east.  Explain the causes of the scramble for east Africa. (What were the reasons for the European scramble for East Africa? Or: Explain the factors that led to European scramble for East Africa). The reasons for the European Scramble for and Partition of east Africa revolve around the changes in Europe and the prevailing conditions in Africa. Such reasons include: Nationalism in Europe, which led to competition over colonial possessions. Strategic significance. East Africa is the source of River Nile and has a coastline, which is vital for international trade. Economic imperialism. In the 19th century, industrialized states in Europe were in the race for colonies as they were interested in tapping raw materials for their industries, E.g. Trona, iron, etc. European desire to “civilize” the Africans, whom they regarded as culturally backward. v European nationals, particularly missionaries, who were already based in Africa, who appealed for protection from their home governments. Some powers wanted to secure territories in East Africa just for prestige. Explain how the following factors influenced (contributed to) the scramble for and Partition of east Africa among European powers: Nationalism in Europe. Strategic significance. Economic imperialism. NATIONALISM IN EUROPE The emergence of Germany as a powerful European nation after the Franco-Prussian war of 1871 caused German nationals to clamour for colonies, feeling that without colonial possessions Germany could not compete favourably with other European powers. Germany‟s victory in the Franco-Prussian war upset the European balance of power. v Despite the 1884-1885 Berlin conference, German and British interests in east Africa almost led to war between Britain and Germany, especially over Zanzibar, which became the operational base for both as they began to focus  on the East African interior. STRATEGIC SIGNIFICANCE Britain and France were trying to undo each other over ownership of Egypt and the Nile‟s source in Uganda. The construction and opening of the Suez Canal shortened the distance to the Far east by half, which attracted British and French interests over Egypt and regions around the Red Sea. East Africa was a reliable source of fresh supplies, which attracted Anglo-German rivalry and competition in the region. ECONOMIC IMPERIALISM Industrialized states in Europe in the 19th century were in the race for colonies to: Tap raw materials for their factories. Find ready market for their manufactured goods. Get new avenues for investment. Create jobs for their people. Speed up their economic development. Explain the events that preceded the Anglo-German agreement of 1886). (Explain the factors that facilitated/led to the Anglo-German agreement (1886).) v In 1884, Harry Johnston signed a treaty with the Chagga. Together with the activities of Sir William Mackinnon, Johnston‟s presence in the Mount Kilimanjaro area caused Karl Peters to appeal to the German government for support in preventing the British from pushing the Germans out of Tanganyika. Karl Peters‟ declared protectorates over Usagara, Ungulu, Usage and Ukami. This was when the Anglo-German agreement (1886) became necessary. Explain the terms of the Anglo-German agreement (1886). (In what ways did the Anglo-German agreement (1886) facilitate peaceful Anglo-German claims over East Africa?) The Anglo-German agreement of 1886 facilitated peaceful Anglo-German claims on east Africa by dividing Kenya and Tanganyika between the British and the Germans through its following terms: The sultan of Zanzibar was to be recognized as the custodian of the 16km coastal strip and the off-shore islands of pate, Mafia, Lame, Pombo and Zanzibar as well as the towns of Kismayu, Prava, Merca and Mogadishu. The Witu coastline between river Umba and River Ruvuma would become the German sphere of influence. The territory between river Umba and River Juba would become the British sphere of influence. The western boundary was not defined. Uganda was left for whichever power got there first.  Identify the commercial companies that were assigned the duty of administering territories in east Africa on behalf of their home governments after the AngloGerman agreement (1886). The Imperial British East Africa company (the British East Africa Association)  under William MacKinnon The German East Africa Company under Karl Peters. Explain the disputes/conflicts that ensued/occurred between the Imperial British east Africa Company and the German East Africa Company in spite of or after the 1886 Anglo-German agreement over East Africa. In spite of the 1886 Anglo-German agreement, there still was rivalry between the British and the German trading companies over east Africa as follows: Sultan Bagash of Zanzibar granted the Imperial British East Africa Company judicial and political powers and the right to levy customs duties over his mainland dominion, which disappointed the German East Africa Company. That same moment, Egypt was competing with the British over Kismayu, Manda, Mogadishu and Warsheikh in the northern coast, which were owned by the sultan. Determined not to allow the Sultan‟s northern ports into German hands, the British handed Lamu over to the Sultan, who in turn left the northern ports in British hands. The ports were then given to Italy, which also gave them up to Britain In 1889, the Imperial British east Africa company, through Frederic Jackson, sought a chance for British prospects in Buganda, Only to find that Karl Peters had already signed a treaty with Kabaka Mwanga, placing Uganda under German protection. In Europe at that moment, Negotiations were going on between the British and the German governments to end the Baganda crisis, which led to the signing of the 1890 second Anglo-German (Heligoland) treaty. The 1890  second Anglo-German (Heligoland) treaty sealed the final division between

Name the countries whose citizens/nationals interacted with Africans.  For centuries, foreigners from the following European countries interacted with Africans: Portugal, Britain, France, Belgium, Germany, Ø Holland, Ø However, actual European interest in Africa began in the 1st century AD.  Explain the factors that led to European expansion into Africa. (Explain the reasons for European expansion into Africa.) Explorers like Vasco Da Gama, David Livingstone, John Speke, Johannes Rebmann, James Grant, Samuel Baker, HM Stanley and Mungo Park wanted to gain geographical knowledge about Africa. They revealed Africa‟s magnificent features, organized kingdoms and her vast resources to the world. The Europeans wanted to have a share in Africa‟s trade in gold, iron, slaves and other items and wished to directly derive taxable revenue from commerce in Africa. The Europeans wanted to Christianize the nonchristian Africans and to ally themselves with Prester John: a legendary Christian King of Africa, who, they hoped, would help them against the Muslims of North Africa. Besides, from the 16th to 19th century, Europe experienced the age of Religious revival, during which many missionary societies and groups were formed with the aim of spreading Christianity within and outside Europe. Such groups and societies included the London Missionary Society, the Universities Mission to Central Africa, the United Methodist Mission, the White Fathers and the Holy Ghost Fathers, the Church Missionary Society, Africa Inland Mission, Etc. The desire to “civilize” Africa by spreading Western education and culture. They wanted to stamp out slave trade and replace it with legitimate trade. Improvement in ship building, particularly by the Portuguese, who led by multiplying the number of masts in their Caravel ships. Improvement in navigation by use of charts and a sophisticated compass marked with thirty points, with which navigators could locate harbours along the coastline and note the direction of winds and currents. Major advances in naval warfare. With guns and Cannons of superior quality, the Europeans could conquer whoever they came across. The Industrial and Scientific Revolutions in Europe in the 18th century, which placed Europe on the forefront in technological development apart from increasing her need for raw materials, most of which could be found in Africa and other overseas regions. Some Europeans travelled overseas for sheer joy to be the first to find and conquer new lands as others were curious to see strange lands and their people. In late 19th century, merchants and other citizens of European nations urged and pressed their governments to acquire overseas colonies for national prestige. A spirit of national pride had gripped the entire Europe. As a result of interaction between European traders and communities along the eastern, western and southern coast of Africa, trade routes and trading centres developed, which opened up the African continent to the Greeks, Romans, Portuguese, British, French, Dutch, Spaniards and Germans. These Europeans invaded and colonized the African continent through what came to be dubbed as the Scramble For and Partition of Africa, threatening to destroy Africa‟s political and other structures.          THE SCRAMBLE FOR & PARTITION OF AFRICA Define the following terms: Scramble for Africa. Partition of Africa. To scramble means to rush for, compete or struggle with others in order to get or do something. To partition is to divide something among people or to apportion something among contenders or competitors. The Scramble for Africa refers to the rush and struggle for different parts of Africa by European powers. The Partition of Africa refers to the dividing up or the sharing of Africa among European nations. Discuss the European scramble for Africa. (Explain how European nations scrambled for Africa.) By the last quarter of the 19th century, Britain, Germany, France, Italy, Belgium and Portugal were in Africa, competing for colonies to boost their social, economic and political standing. During the Scramble for and Partition of Africa, the Europeans used both persuasion and force to acquire as many colonies as possible for themselves. Africans who collaborated were offered a reward while those who resisted were punished. At times, the Europeans risked fighting among themselves over colonies in Africa. The Europeans were scheming to exploit the economic resources that lay untapped in the continent. Anxious for a peaceful division of Africa, Otto Von Bismarck (the German Chancellor) convened the Berlin Conference in 1884-1885. European powers discussed and divided Africa among themselves around a table overseas without involving the Africans themselves. African reaction to European invasion varied. Most communities resisted while only a few collaborated with the Europeans. In spite of their resistance, most African societies except Liberia and Ethiopia had been colonized by 1914. By 1915, many traditional kingdoms and chiefdoms in Africa had changed beyond recognition while others vanished almost without a trace. Describe the methods used by the Europeans to acquire colonies in Africa. Signing treaties. Europeans signed treaties among themselves and with the local leaders in the areas they occupied. Military conquest. Communities that resisted European domination such as the Asante, Nandi, Ndebele and Mandinka were subdued through military expeditions, with devastating consequences. A blend of diplomacy and force. Europeans would sometimes use a combination of treaties and force. For instance, the British signed the Moffat, Rudd and other treaties with the Ndebele, who they however fought in the 1893 and 1896-1897 Ndebele and Chimurenga wars. Under this method, Africans were tricked and lured with gifts through explorers, missionaries and traders, who were on friendly terms with but did not disclose European intensions to the Africans. For instance, the Italians signed a treaty of friendship with Menelik ii) , but they published an Italian version stating that Menelik had put Ethiopia under Italian protection. Company rule. Chartered companies were used in governing colonies on behalf of their mother countries. They helped set up administrative posts in African territories, which were later recognized as Spheres Of Influence by their parent countries. Identify: The treaties signed among Europeans during the scramble for and partition of Africa. The treaties signed between the Europeans and LOCAL African LEADERS during the Scramble for and partition of

TOPIC 1 : EUROPEAN INVASION AND COLONIZATION OF AFRICA – Click to view TOPIC 2 : ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIAL RULE IN KENYA – Click to view TOPIC 3 : COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION – Click to view TOPIC 4 : SOCIO – ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN COLONIAL KENYA – Click to view TOPIC 5 : POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS AND THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN KENYA ( 1919 – 1963) – Click to view TOPIC 6 : RISE OF AFRICAN NATIONALISM – Click to view TOPIC 7 : LIVES AND CONTRIUTIONS OF KENYAN LEADERS – Click to view TOPIC 8 : THE FORMATION STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE GOVERNMENT OF KENYA – Click to view

What is democracy? The is derived from the Greek word Democratia (Demos meaning people and Kratas meaning ‘rule or power’). It is a form of government where political decisions are directly in the hands of the citizens. Key aspects of a real democracy. Political aspect. The consent of the governed (expressed directly or indirectly through their elected representatives) must be sought when making political decisions. Public opinion must be given priority in governance. Social aspect. Human dignity must be valued at all times. Every individual should be free to organize his own lifestyle, hold and express opinions, enjoy company of others and join associations. Economic aspect. All citizens must be provided with equal opportunities. Exploitation of humans by fellow humans should be eliminated. Means of production should be nationalized to reduce inequalities between the rich and the poor. Types of democracy Pure or direct democracy. This is where the people are directly involved and participate in decision-making. Such a democracy has an advantage in that the laws made are easily accepted by all the people since they feel they own the laws. This is common form of democracy in smaller organizations and was also used in ancient Greece. Indirect democracy. This is a type of democracy where citizens exercise their right in decision making not directly as individuals, but through their agreed representatives, elected by the citizens. Parliament acts as the basic institution in this type of democracy. The elected may make Appointments of persons to fill other positions like the Cabinet or carry out Nomination (hand-picking of additional representatives to join the elected ones. Constitutional Democracy. This is where democracy is exercised but within the limits of the constitution. The minority rights are guaranteed (freedom of expression, association and worship) It is also referred to as Liberal democracy and is a form of representative democracy. Merits of democracy  It is founded on the concept of the people and therefore leaders cannot ignore the people from whom they get authority to rule. It is most popular form of government. It recognizes equality among all the people without discrimination. It advocates equality before the law and anyone can rise to power regardless of one’s background or environment. It promotes patriotism or national pride as it urges people to participate in their governance. This reduces chances of a revolution It promotes liberty and peace as it advocates for peaceful coexistence. People develop a sense of cooperation. It can also promote international cooperation when extended beyond the borders. Since it is based on moral and educative values, democracy helps individuals to develop their personality. It develops initiative of the people and their sense of responsibility. Democracy balances the liberty of the individual with the power of the state. Demerits of democracy. Democracy promotes dictatorship by the majority. The majority government by fulfilling the election pledges to please the supporting electorate ends up neglecting the political, social and economic interests of the minority who did not vote for it. Democracy encourages class struggle and corruption as only those that possess money can engage in intensive campaigns and get elected due to their influence. Then once elected, they pass laws that protect their interests. A democratic government is usually slow and wasteful since consultations have to be made when making a decision. Time and public resources are used in the process of seeking the views of the majority. The ethical value of democracy is questionable. It is not easy to find an honest, sincere man of good moral character being elected. Democracy may perpetuate incompetence since it is numbers which matter when choosing a leader not the leadership qualities. Where a majority of the electorate is ignorant, they may make poor decision during elections thus promoting incompetence. Although democracy is regarded as the rule of the majority, in essence, it is the elected minority who rule. Democracy is therefore as a form of dictatorship by the informed or elected minority. Principles of democracy. Principle-basic truth or general law. Freedom of speech, debate and enquiry. The basic healthy political culture among a group of people is based on open debate among citizens where they can express their views without fear. People’s participation as a whole in government. Through free, fair and regular elections, the government should remain a servant of the people and not master. Democracy is based on consent which can be withdrawn if the government fails to satisfy peoples’ expectations. Open and accountable media. The media must be open in their agenda and be held accountable to the public. Media monopolies should not be allowed to develop. Economic democracy. This implies the decentralization of economic power so that individuals and communities can be economically empowered to create and control their own wealth. Equality before the law. Judgment should be made in accordance with a written law, rather than in an arbitrary manner. Each citizen also has an equal ability to seek and receive justice.   Human rights Human rights refers to the accepted principles of fairness and justice- or the universal moral rights that belong equally to all people in their capacity as human beings regardless of sex, race, and tribe, and language, place of origin, age or political beliefs. Why human rights are important. Rights are necessary for human beings to achieve a dignified life, fulfill their potential and to satisfy both their physical and spiritual needs. Rights are inherent to human beings. One has rights purely because they are human. They are not granted by the state. Rights empower citizens and residents by giving them control in decision making organs of the state. Rights justify special treatment of minorities and other special or disadvantaged groups or communities. Rights provide guidance to organs of state regarding the exercise of state power. Rights such as the right to vote, freedom of expression and of the press ensure the public access the necessary information necessary for the protection of democracy and ensure accountability of public authorities. Respect for human rights limits internal and external

The term ‘constitution’ refers to a set of agreed principles and rules which state the structure and powers of a government The constitution of Kenya is a supreme law that binds all people and all state organs at national and county level. It outlines the structure of government, defines the powers and prerogatives of the head of state, states the compositions, functions and powers of parliament, states the compositions of the executives and outlines the duties and rights of the citizens. Constitutions vary in various countries depending on different experiences and their form is determined by the following. The historical background of a country Geographical factors. For example the numerous islands of Japan must be catered for in their constitution Religious beliefs of the people. Some countries have the Islamic Sharia law in their constitution e.g Libya and Somali Race composition of a country. For example, in South Africa the apartheid racial policy had been included in their constitution. Functions of a constitution The constitution provides the legal ground from which the laws of the country are made. It spells out the powers of government and its relationship to the governed. It spells out the rights and duties of all citizens. It also provides the options a citizen has, legally, if those rights and freedoms are violated. Types of constitutions Written constitution. This is a constitution in which the basic principles concerning the organization of government, powers of its various agencies and rights of the subjects are consciously written down in one document. The first country to adopt a written constitution was USA after she attained political independence from Britain on 4th July 1776. France adopted it in 1791following the French revolution of 1789. The primary objective of these adoptions was to include the rights of the citizens to avoid abuse by those in power. Other countries with written constitutions include many European, African, Latin American and Asian countries. Kenya also has a written constitution. Characteristics of a written constitution. It acts as a standard of reference to which the acts of the government of the day may always be compared. It is a rigid document that cannot be altered easily. It is only amended through a clearly spelt out procedure which is followed to the letter. There must be a special body entrusted by the legislature with the work of drafting the constitution. Once drafted the constitution must get the approval of the legislature. Advantages of a written constitution. Since the procedures of amending a constitution are clearly spelled out, it is not easy for politicians or other interest groups in the society to alter it. In case of a crisis, the constitution provides very clear guidelines on the procedures to be followed, thus restoring stability in the country. Since a written constitution is rigid, it therefore recognizes that there are fundamentals in a state, e.g rights of citizens, powers and duties of the president, which should never be easily changed. Change can only be done after adequate consideration. It is fundamental to a newly formed nation so as to take off in an orderly and organized manner. A written constitution is important to ensure that the identity of the various groups are preserved and maintained in a country with diverse racial groupings, religion and ethnic composition. Since it is arrived at after thorough and careful consideration by all, it therefore unites the people in the nation as it would have acquired recognition and acceptance from the majority of the citizens. Disadvantages of a written constitution. Due to its rigidity, it can fail to respond to changing circumstances and can therefore easily become obsolete. A written constitution tends to make the judiciary too powerful as it I the only body that interprets the document. Where the executive and the legislature control the judiciary, the constitution can easily be manipulated. Some written constitutions are too detailed and rarely understood by the ordinary citizens. The procedure for amending the constitution is slow and costly. This causes delays which could lead to civil disorder in a society.   Unwritten constitution This is a constitution where the fundamental principles of the organization and powers of the government are not contained in one document but rather in several scattered documents to add to the customs of a country. For example, the British constitution. Sources of British constitution. This refers to an Act of Parliament. Examples of statutes that comprise the British constitution are; Act of Union with Scotland of 1707 that determined the territorial boundaries within which the United Kingdom’s constitution operates.  Parliament Act of 1911 that governs the relationship between the House of Commons and the House of Representatives  The Reform Acts of 1832 and 1834 which determine succession to the throne. This refers to ancient or traditional practices or the common law. For example, the first born inheriting the throne. Laws of precedents. Past accepted principles may be applied to a new set of facts in a judgment and this may eventually become part of the law of the land. Customs of parliament. House procedures including standing orders and other regulations are part of the British constitution. Historical documents. The following two Important documents form part of the British constitution; The Magna Carta (1215AD) that contained the promises by the England King that he would not levy taxes outside the three legal feudal taxes without the consent of the legal counsel.   The Petition of Right (1628) in which King Charles I agreed not to levy taxes unless through the Act of Parliament. The Conventions and Practices that have become respected over the years are also part of the British constitution. Advantages of unwritten constitution It is flexible and adaptable to changing circumstances in the society. This is especially valuable during periods of rapid socio-economic and political changes. It is indigenous and therefore suited for a state. It can be changed by ordinary legislative process. It provides continuity with the nation’s traditions and is therefore accepted and respected by the people.

Despite the high amount of decentralization of African communities in the 19th c , there existed a few who were centralized. For example, Buganda, Ethiopia, Buganda, Asante, Mandinka, Ndebele and shona among others. The Baganda. These were a Bantu speaking people of the Buganda kingdom in Uganda. The Buganda Chiefdom had emerged as early as 140 AD as a subject state of Bunyoro- Kitara Kingdom Origin of Buganda kingdom. The kingdom was crystallized around the counties of busiro, kyadondo and mawakota. Traditions also state that the first king and creator of Buganda kingdom was Kintu who came from the east around Mount Elgon region. It is believed he entered Buganda with 13 clans. Other theories attribute Buganda’s origin to the Luo. That Kimera Kato, a brother of Isingoma Rukidi Mpunga the founder of the luo-babito dynasty in Bunyoro was the founder of Buganda. It is also probable that Buganda might have been one of the many kingdoms founded by the bachwezi- the demi-gods. Other clans of Buganda are believed to have come from the ssese islands. Factors that led to the growth of a strong Buganda Kingdom. Good strong and able leaders like Kkyabagu, junju and Suna etc. who propelled it to prosperity by uniting the people and restructuring the existing administration system. Buganda Was small and a compact kingdom and therefore easy to manage. Other kingdoms like Bunyoro-Kitara were too large with a class system. Its strategic location in a defensible position in the lake region was of great advantage over her rivals Toro and Bunyoro. She lay next to Lake Victoria giving her defence, communication and transport advantage. On the east were small states of Toro and Ankole who posed no threat. Good climate and fertile soils in the region. This enabled successful growing of Bananas, their staple crop. The contacts with the Waswahili enabled her to gain riches and weapons/guns. The kingdom had a strong loyal army to defend it from her warring neighbors. The Kabaka even possessed a royal navy that kept guard over Lake Victoria. Existence of a centralized government making the kingdom cohesive. The ganda traditions allowing the kabaka to marry from every clan as means of ensuring unity. System of labour organization. The tradition demanded that farming be done by women while the men were involved in other activities such as politics, carpentry, war, bark cloth making and smithing The wars of conquest which finally led to her expansion. How Buganda kingdom was governed. Buganda kingdom had a highly centralized monarchy under the kabaka who enjoyed absolute powers. His position was hereditary. The Kabaka’s Court was the nerve centre of the Baganda community. All symbols of Royal authority were kept in the court. E.g.  the throne (Namulondo), royal Drums, spears and stools. The kabaka was the political leader of the Baganda kingdom. He was the Head of the traditional religion –lubale/ he was the chief priest. He was the judicial head and the final court of appeal/he was the supreme judge. The was the commander-in- -chief of the armed forces He appointed senior government officials and dismissed them when need arose. He controlled trade. The capital of the kingdom was at Mengo, where the palace, Lubiri, was situated. The kabaka appointed senior government officials and dismissed them when need arose. For example, he appointed the katikiro, omulamuzi and omuwanika i.e. prime minister, chief justice and treasurer respectively who assisted him in administration. He also appointed mugema (the senior most chief among the Bataka), Musenero (the chief Butler) and Mfumbiro  (the chief baker) The katikiro was in charge of organizing tax collecting and public works. He planned wars in the Kabaka’s name. He had to protect the kabaka during war. He was responsible of informing the kabaka of the decisions he made on court issues. Below him were omulamuzi (chief justice) and omuwanika (treasurer) who were directly responsible to the kabaka. The Bataka were minor chiefs in charge of clans, guarded land, collected taxes, carried out conscription to the army and presented the page boys to the kabaka. Peasants served under chief and were to fight in wars. Slaves (badus) served the king chiefs in their homesteads. Pages and bagalagala (sons of chiefs and other nobles) served the kabaka too. To ensure unity the kabaka married from principal clans. There was a Lukiko which advised the kabaka and was the final court. It comprised 69 members who were nominated by the kabaka (positions were not hereditary). It made laws and debated issues concerning the kingdom. It also directed tax collection and planned expenditure, it acted as the final court of appeal, and it represented the needs of the people to the kabaka. It helped the kabaka in general administration. It checked the activities of government. Political organization. The kingdom was divided into counties (Ssaza) and sub-counties. Each county was under Ssaza chiefs whose position was hereditary initially before the kabaka began to appoint them as a means of making them accountable. Each Ssaza was divided into a gombolola headed by a gombolola chief, who maintained law and order and collected taxes. The gombololas were further divided into smaller sub-divisions called miluka each under a miluka chief. The miluka was divided into kisoko. The smallest administrative unit among the Baganda was the village council The Abatongole appointed by the kabaka, governed the vassal states Social organization of the Baganda.   The kingdom was divided in social classes with the royal family occupying the top of the hierarchy, then ruling class, the chiefs who ruled over the peasants or commoners known as bakopi. At the bottom of the social class were the slaves (Badu) who were acquired mainly through raids on neighbouring communities such as Busoga, Toro and Bunyoro. The Baganda believed in the existence of many gods some of whom included; Katonda, God the creator whose home was in heaven. The prayers to him were done every morning and were conducted by the head of the homestead. Kibuuka, God of war and thunder. Mukasa,