December 7, 2022

Environmental conservation is protection and preservation of natural resources from destruction, wastage or loss while environmental management is effective planning and control of the processes and activities that could cause deterioration of environment.   Need For Environmental Conservation and Management/Why its Essential To sustain human life because it depends or resources from the environment e.g. soil, water, air, forests, wildlife, etc. So as to protect endangered species of plants and animals from becoming extinct e.g. Meru oak, white rhino and Sokoke Scops owl. So that the natural resources in the environment can continue sustaining the present and future generations. Because a lot of natural resources in the environment are of economic value by being consumed directly or by giving us an income. Because the features in the environment e.g. plants and animals are of aesthetic value i.e. they are beautiful to look at. For posterity i.e. to ensure a better life for future generations. To curb global warming by reducing the green house effect which is causing a lot of heat to be trapped in the earth‟s atmosphere. Environmental Hazards Dangers or disasters within the environment due to natural causes or human activities. 1) Floods An overflow of a large amount of water over dry land. Causes Spilling of excess water of a river over its banks into the surrounding areas. Rising of the level of the sea or lake due to increased rainfall. Exceptionally heavy rainfall like El Nino resulting in excess water on land collecting in shallow basins and flat areas causing flooding. Breaking of a dam making the water in the reservoir to drown the land on the downstream side of the valley. When an earthquake occurs in the ocean causing huge sea waves called Tsunami which travels to the land flooding it. Control of Floods Construction of dams to reduce the speed and amount of water flowing down stream by excess water flowing into the reservoir. Construction of dykes or high walls some distance from the river bank, lake shoe or sea shore to protect low lying land from being flooded by water from the water body. Making piles of earth along the riverbanks to form a raised platform to keep flood waters within the river channel. Reforestation of land to reduce to increase infiltration by vegetation giving rain water ample time to percolate and thus reduce runoff meaning there will be less water in rivers and hence less incidents of flooding. Dredging of shallow river channels to increase their depth and hence the channels capacity. Straitening of rivers with meanders to enable the water to flow more swiftly. Diverting of some river tributaries to reduce the volume of water getting into the main river. 2) Lightning -Flash of brilliant light in the sky produced by natural electricity passing between clouds or from the clouds to ground. -Common where convectional rainfall occurs. -Associated with cumulonimbus clouds. -Common Kakamega, Kisii and Nyamira and around L. Victoria which experiences in the highest frequency. -It starts forest fires e.g. in U.S.A and damages houses and electrical installations leading to loss of life and property. Control Installing lightning arresters on buildings which are copper rod conductors which direct lightning electrical current into the ground. Educating the people on the dangers of lightning and precautions to take. Not taking shelters under trees or on verandas when it‟s raining. Avoiding walking on open fields during thunderstorms. If possible people should remain indoors when it‟s raining. 3) Windstorms Very strong winds that develop as a result of great differences in atmospheric pressure on the ground e.g. hurricanes, tornadoes and typhoons. Kenya experiences thermals. Effects In the deserts they transport sand which may burry houses and oasis. Rip off roofs of buildings Uproot trees and Cause flooding and Felling of crops e.g. cocoa pods. Spreading bush fires Control Measures Predicting and monitoring windstorms using satellites to know their development and advancement speed. Warning people through electronic media of advancing windstorms so that they can move away. Taking shelter in bankers. Planting of trees in open ground to break the speed of wind thus reduce its destructive effects. 4) Earthquakes 5) Droughts Condition whereby an area experiences a rainfall deficient season followe4d by a long dry period. Causes Insufficient rainfall Global warming leading to high rates of evaporation which exceed precipitation. Encroachment of desert like conditions due to destruction of vegetation by deforestation and overgrazing. Effects Crop failure leading to famines Deaths due to famines Shortage of water Closing of HEP stations Death of livestock and other herbivores due to shortage of water and pasture Migration of people to unaffected areas which may lead to conflict due to competition for resources (environmental refugees. Destruction of vegetation and animal life causes loss of biodiversity. Poverty as those who depend on agriculture lose their livelihoods. 6) Fires Causes Kerosene stoves Candles electric faults Explosion of oil pipelines Explosion of oil tankers when people drawing fuel set the on fire accidentally e.g. when attempting to smoke e.g. Sachangwan. Lightning 7) Volcanic Eruptions Effects a) Lava flows spread to nearby settlements burying and burning people. b) Set vegetation on fire. Heated water cause death of aquatic life. Emit poisonous gases which kill people when they inhale them. Damage and disrupt infrastructure. 8) Pests and Diseases Pests- animals, insects and birds which are harmful to other animals and plants. Effects Locusts and army warms destroy vegetation resulting in shortage of pasture for herbivores. Ticks, river flukes, tapeworms and fleas affect animals by transmitting their diseases and weakening them. Jiggers cause woods in human feet through which infections may enter the body. Parasitic plants feed on the host plant leading to its eventual death. Cause problems in the provision of food and maintenance of human health. Most diseases which affect plants and animals are viral, bacterial or fungal. Control Use of chemicals e.g. fungicides, herbicides and pesticides. Developing plant species which are resistant to pests and diseases. Biological control e.g. control of tsetse flies by breeding sterile males which are

Development of towns. Process in which a population is transformed from a rural based agricultural lifestyle to an urban based non-agricultural lifestyle Main categories of Urban Centres Capital towns-towns which are the main seat of the government or administrative centres of each country. These are Nairobi, Dodoma and Kampala. Cities-largest towns in E. Africa with city council status i.e. Nairobi, Dar and Kampala. Sea ports– are located in the Indian Ocean Coast and are Mombasa, Malindi, Dar, Tanga, Mtwara and Lindi. Lake Ports– are located on lake shores e.g. Kisumu, Mwanza, Kigoma, Bukoba, Jinja, etc. Mining towns-evolved due to mining activities e.g. Magadi, Kakamega, Shinyanga, Kilembe, etc. Industrial towns-whose main functions are industrial activities e.g. Thika, Athi River, Jinja, Tanga, etc. Collecting towns– whose functions are to collect agricultural produce for being located in rich agricultural areas e.g. Karatina, Nakuru, Eldoret, Mbalala and Kabale in Uganda and Mbeya and Songea in Tanzania. Gap towns- (Makutano towns) located at points of convergence of transport routes e.g. Voi, Moshi and Tabora in Tanzania and Hoima in Uganda. Administrative towns-whose main function is administration e.g. all provincial and district headquarters in Kenya, Dodoma and Morogoro in Tanzania and Gulu and Fort Portal in Uganda. Factors influencing the Growth of Major urban Centres in E. Africa Rural to urban migration when young people complete formal schooling and migrate to major towns to look foe employment causing population to expand in those towns. Natural growth of urban population through births because most of migrants are young couples who are at their height of their reproductive years. advantages of well develop[ed transport and communication network since most of them are accessible by good roads, railway, air and some by waterways enabling goods to be imported easily and accelerates migration. Industrialisation which attracts people because industries attracts people because they offer employment opportunities. Some have emerged due to mining as it attracts workers who move and settle in the mining area. Tourism whereby influx of tourists to a town can cause demand for high class hotels, curio shops, entertainment etc which make the town to grow e.g. Malindi and Mombasa. Agriculture can make a town to grow by providing market for industrial products from urban centres and by providing raw materials foe industries established in urban areas. administration when there is set district or provincial headquarters and government employees are posted there to provide services to the people and houses, shops and service industries such as banking are established there to serve people. Growth and Functions of Selected Towns in Kenya Thika (An Industrial Town) its one of the most industrialised towns in Kenya with industries such as flour milling, bread baking, vehicle assembly, fruit canning, etc. Located at the edge of Kenyan Highlands. o Started as a small African village where the Akamba and Agikuyu traders met and exchanged goods. A market developed and Asian traders set up shops to cater for the small African and European farmers from the surrounding areas. Factors Which Have Contributed To Its Development as an Industrial Town It’s surrounded by districts which are agriculturally productive e.g. Kiambu, Thika, Maragua and Muranga. It’s situated near rivers Chania and Thika which supply water for domestic and industrial use. It’s located on Nairobi-Nanyuki railway and tarmac road which makes transport of raw materials to the town and that of finished products to the market easy. It’s near Nairobi which is a source of raw materials making many investors to prefer to establish industries there. High population from the surrounding districts which supply labour to the industries as well as market for some manufactured goods. Availability of expansive flat land for industrial growth. Congestion of Nairobi‟s industrial area which made many investors to prefer Thika as it‟s outside and at the same time near Nairobi. Availability of power from 7 Forks Power Project on R. Tana which provides electricity for industrial and domestic use. Kisumu (A Lake Port) It’s the largest port of E. Africa. Located on the E. shores of L. Victoria on the Winam Gulf. Third largest city after Nairobi and Mombasa. Started as a small fishing settlement called Ugowe Bay. Later, the settlement developed into a port called Port Florence after the completion of the railway from Kilindini to Mombasa. Port Florence later came to be known as Kisumu Factors Which Contributed To Its Development into a Leading Lake Port Settlement of Asians after the railway reached there who later built shops to cater for Africans needs (Bombay of Kenya). Location on the shores of L. Victoria which ensures adequate supply of water for domestic and industrial use. Availability of H.E.P. from Uganda which has enabled industries to grow and expand. Being a lake port which handles regional trade across the lake. Development of industries and trade which has attracted many job seekers thus increasing the population. Surrounding areas are highly populated thus acting as a pool of labour for industries and market for products. Fishing activities and processing of fish has contributed to its growth. Being surrounded by areas which are agriculturally productive e.g. Western Kenya which provide a base for potential development in industries in sugar and cotton in Kisumu. Eldoret (An Agricultural Collecting Centre) Located in the highlands on the western part of the R. Valley. It started as a small post office from which the town grew. It was started as an agricultural collecting and marketing centre for White farmers who were commercial wheat farmers and practised dairy farming. It has acted as a collecting centre for agricultural produce from Uasin Gishu District. Factors Which Made It to Be a Leading Agricultural Collecting Centre It’s easily accessible by the railway line from Mombasa to Kampala and the highway from Mombasa to Kampala. Location at the heart of one of the richest agricultural hinterlands for which it has acted as a collecting, processing and marketing centre. Availability of social amenities which has led to rapid increase from the surrounding areas. Availability of H.E.P. which has led to

Population-total number of people occupying a given area. Population distribution-the way people are spread out on the land. Population density-number of persons per unit area= number of people in a given area/total area of the place=XP/km2. Demography-study of statistical data on human populations. Sources of Population Data Primary sources– registration of births and deaths and censuses. Secondary sources-census reports, textbooks, periodicals, etc. Population Distribution in E. Africa In 2005 was estimated to be 90m people spread out thus: Kenya-33m Tanzania-36m Uganda-21m It’s spread out over an area of 1,768,267km2 resulting to a population density of 51 persons per km2. The population is unevenly distributed whereby some places are densely populated e.g. large towns of Nairobi, Dar-es-Salaam and Kampala while others are sparsely populated e.g. N. and E Kenya, N.E. Uganda etc. Factors Influencing Population Distribution in East Africa Distribution of population on the earth’s surface isn’t uniform due to the following factors: Climate Areas with moderate temperatures and high rainfall have high population per unit area than those with extremely high or low temperatures and low unreliable rainfall because moderate temperatures give comfort to people and abundant rainfall favours growth of crops. Relief High altitude areas have low population because of extremely low temperatures which doesn‟t support growth of crops to ensure food sufficiency. Plains and gently sloping areas have higher population than steep areas due to fertile soils, ease to erect buildings and construction of transport infrastructure. Vegetation Dense forests are sparsely populated because they are habitat to wild animals and it’s difficult to develop transport and communication infrastructure and some are tsetse fly infested e.g. Miombo Woodland in Tanzania. Grasslands have high population if rainfall is favourable because they are easy to clear and relatively level or gently sloping. Soils Areas with fertile soils and reliable rainfall have high population because they are agriculturally productive while those with poor soils e.g. savannah with leached soils have low population since they are agriculturally unproductive. Drainage Well drained areas have high population than swampy areas because they support settlement and farming. Areas which are swampy have less population because it’s difficult to construct buildings, carry out agriculture and also mosquito infested. Pests and Diseases Areas infested with mosquito and tsetse flies have low population because those pests transmit malaria and sleeping sickness and Nagana to livestock. Disease epidemics cause low population in areas affected as was the case in S.W. Uganda as a result of HIV and Aids which left the area almost deserted. Historical Factors Slave trade left some parts of W. Africa with low population as people were captured and sold as slaves in America, W. Indies and Arab world. While others run away to avoid being captured. Colonisation caused people to be driven from their homes in to reserves to create room for white farmers e.g. in parts of Kenyan Highlands which caused low population in indigenous people’s farms while the population in reserves kept on increasing. Tribal Conflicts Areas with tribal conflicts are sparsely populated because people move away from there to seek safety e.g. Molo. Economic Factors Towns and areas with mining activities have high population as people go to seek for jobs e.g. Nairobi, L. Magadi due to trona mining. Political Factors Political unrest may cause people to move from their home area leaving it sparsely populated e.g. Uganda during the reign of Iddi Amin and S. Sudan. Government Policy Government programmes such as construction of dams and mining may require removal of people from certain areas causing them to be sparsely populated while the population in areas of destination increases.   Factors Influencing Population Growth Population growth is the change that occurs in the number of people in a population over a given period of time. Population may grow positively by number of people increasing in a population or negatively by having a decrease in the number of people. The main factors influencing population growth are fertility, mortality and migration. Fertility Fertility-number of live births a woman has during her reproductive period. Fecundity-ability of a woman to conceive and give birth to a child regardless whether alive or still born. Infecundity/Sterility-inability of a woman to conceive and give birth to a child regardless whether alive or still born. Primary Infertility-involuntary childlessness. Involuntary Secondary Infertility-involuntary childlessness caused by a second factor e.g. when a woman has had a child/children and is unable to have more due to health factors. Voluntary Secondary Infertility-voluntary childlessness where a woman who has had a child/children decides not to have any more e.g. by using contraception methods. Fertility Rate- average number of children that a woman of child bearing age (15-49 years) will have in her lifetime. High fertility rate leads to high population growth while low fertility rates lead to slow or negative population growth. Population Growth-increase or decrease in the number of people. Natural Population Growth Natural increase or decrease in population. It’s calculated using Crude Birth Rate/estimated rate of births in a population (CBR) and Crude Death Rate/estimated rate of deaths in a population (CDR). CBR=total number of births in a year ×1000/total population estimated at mid year=X births/1000population. CDR=total number of deaths in a year×1000/total population estimated at midyear=X deaths/1000population. N.P.G=CBR-CDR×100/1000=X%. For instance, in 1999 the CBR in Kenya was 41.3 while CDR was 11.7. Therefore the population growth was (41.3-11.7) ×100/1000=29.6%. Numerical population Growth Actual or absolute increase in the number of people in an area within a given period of time. =inter-censal increase×100/total population in the former census For instance pop in 1989 was 2000 and in 1999 was 2500. Inter-censal increase was 500 =500×100/2000=25%.   Causes of High Fertility Rate in Kenya Cultural Beliefs Early marriage of women which lengthens their fertile duration. Belief in large families as a source of prestige e.g. children are a source of labour and girls are a source of dowry. Polygamy which causes competition between wives leading to large number of births per woman. Sex preference when there is a high regard for a birth

Buying and selling or exchange of goods and services. Types of Trade 1. Domestic/Internal/Home/Local trade Buying and selling of goods within a country’s borders. It’s classified into: Wholesale Trade-purchasing of goods in bulk from producers and selling them to retailers. Retail Trade-buying goods from wholesalers and selling them to individual consumers. Regional Trade -Trade between countries found in the same geographical region. International Trade -Exchange of goods and services at the global level. It’s classified into: Export Trade-selling of goods and services to foreign countries. Examples of major exports from Kenya are coffee, tea, cut flowers, tourism, fluorspar, miraa, vegetables, etc. Import Trade-buying of goods and services from other countries. Examples of imports to Kenya are crude oil, vehicles, electronics, sugar, skilled labour, fertilisers, rice, vehicle parts etc. Bilateral Trade-exchange of goods and services between two countries. Multilateral Trade-exchange of goods and services between many countries. Visible Trade-trading in tangible goods. Invisible trade-trading in services. Balance of Trade -Difference in value of countries visible exports and imports. It’s of 2 types: Adverse Balance of Payments-in which value of visible imports exceeds that of visible exports. Favourable Balance of Trade-in which value of visible exports exceeds that of visible imports. Balance of Payment Difference in value between visible and invisible exports and imports. Factors Influencing Trade Difference in natural resources which makes it necessary to trade with other countries or areas in order to obtain goods and resources which are not found in their area. population whereby large population or one with high purchasing power provides a large and ready market for goods and services encouraging trade. Trade occurs when there is demand and supply of goods and services. If the supply is low and the demand is high, prices go up stimulating trade. When the supply is more and the demand is low, prices go down discouraging trade. Adequate and efficient means of transport and communication encourage trade because bulky goods can be transported quickly and overlong distances from producers to consumers. Poor transport discourages trade due to the difficulty in getting goods to the market in time. Goods can be supplied faster when traders communicate with suppliers without having to travel a lot which reduces travelling cost and hence increasing profits. Trade restrictions can encourage or discourage trade. They are of two types: Tariffs- taxes or duties levied by a country on a particular type of commodity imported in order to protect its domestic industries. Quotas-specified quantities of goods which must not be exceeded during importation or exportation. Trade Agreements-agreements made between countries regarding which commodities are exported or imported from specific countries. Total Ban-complete restriction of importation of a particular commodity in order for a country to protect its domestic industries or due to political hostility. Trading Blocks or economic Unions/Associations among countries aimed at promoting regional trade among members states can encourage trade between members and discourage trade with non members. Free Trade Associations-liberalise trade among member countries by lowering and abolishing tariffs. Common Market Associations-liberalise trade among members and raise tariffs for non members. Trade can only take place between countries only when they are in good terms. Hostility leads to total ban as was the case with s. Africa during apartheid and Iraq when it attacked Kuwait and failed to destroy weapons of mass destruction. Existence of aids to trade e.g. Banking facilitates storage and transfer of money used in trade transactions Insurance protects businesses against theft and destruction from fire which instils confidence among investors. Warehouses are essential for storage of large quantities of goods for sale. Significance of Trade to Kenya Many Kenyans are employed in domestic trade such as in wholesale and retail shops and in sectors dealing with foreign trade such as customs and clearing and forwarding firms. It’s a source of revenue for the government by charging sales tax such as V.A.T. on manufactured goods sold locally and tariffs at the point of entry into the country. Foreign trade enables a country to earn foreign exchange which is used to import goods that a country needs, setting up of industries, developing transport and communication, providing social services etc. Leads to development of settlements e.g. many towns started as a small market and more people moved there when trading activities increased. International trade ensures availability of a wide range of goods for consumers to select from in order to satisfy their needs. It leads to development and improvement of transport infrastructure such as roads and railways in order to enhance transportation of goods and people. Leads to development of industries because as the goods are bought demand for goods increases hence more industries are set or existing ones increase their activities in order to satisfy the increased demand. Problems Facing Trade in Kenya Kenya largely depends on agricultural exports which are sometimes affected by climatic variations and diseases and pests leading to low production, and hence low foreign currency. Kenya’s exports are of low value as they consist of raw materials or semi processed commodities which fetch low prices because they have to be processed further and also due to being bulky a lot of money is required for their exportation making returns accruing from exportation to be low. Local manufactures suffer unfair competition from foreign firms e.g. from COMESA some of which don‟t attract tariffs, diversion of goods intended for neighbouring countries to the local market and counterfeit goods which compete with genuine ones. There is ignorance about Kenyan goods where by some Kenyans believe that goods from overseas are of superior quality so they prefer imported goods instead of local ones. Unexpected trade restrictions are sometimes imposed on Kenyan exports e.g. in 2000 E.U. banned fish importation from Kenya. Inadequate transport and communication as most roads are poor and impassable during rainy season meaning goods can‟t reach the market and hence increased costs for such goods. The Future of International Trade in Kenya The future of it is bright because of the following: Kenya has signed trade agreements

Transport is the act of moving items and people from one place to another while communication is the process of transferring information between individuals, groups and places. Factors influencing Transport and Communication Existence of sets of corresponding places with surplus (supply) and deficits (demand) for goods, services and information. Alternative sources may hinder transport and communication e.g. a nearby source of market of a required commodity or source of information or means of communication. Infrastructure depending on how it is can lead to establishment of efficient or inefficient transport and communication network. Politics where by the government may ban use of certain means of communication e.g. as was the case with Google in China or where the government may decide to be the leading provider of transport and communication facilities. Modes of Transport There are 3 common modes of transport namely land, water and air transport. Land Transport -The type that involves movement of people and goods on land. Types of Land Transport 1. Human Porterage Movement of people from one place to another carrying light goods on their back, hands or shoulders or by using hand carts, trolleys, bicycles or motorcycles. 2. Use of animals Use of domesticated animals to carry goods and people on their back or pull loaded carts (drought animals). Advantages of Human and Animal Transport It’s the cheapest and can be used by all classes of people since no fuel is used. Animals require very low maintenance costs as they feed on vegetation. Relatively safe because few accidents occur during transportation. Doesn‟t pollute the environment as it doesn‟t use fossil fuels. They are flexible in that they can be used to transport goods in areas without good road network. It’s convenient in that it’s readily available whenever required. Disadvantages Goods can be stolen or destroyed by wild animals and extreme weather conditions because they are exposed. They are a very slow means of transport hence time consuming, tedious and boring. They can‟t transport large quantities of goods because human and animal energy get exhausted with time. They can cause congestion on busy urban roads which may delay other forms of transport. Road Transport Means of transportation of people and goods by motor vehicles on roads. Types of Roads All weather roads- which are used all year round i.e. tarmac and murrum roads. Dry weather roads- which are used reliably during dry seasons. Motorable trucks- which are used by people on foot and by vehicles on dry season. A truck is a path or rough road made by people, vehicles or animals. Principal Trans-Continental Highways in Africa Great North Road connecting Cape Town and Cairo through Tanzania, Kenya, Sudan and Ethiopia. Trans-Africa Highway from the Port of Mombasa to Dakar in Senegal through east and Central Africa. Dakar-Djamena Highway through Core De Ivoire , Nigeria and Chad. Trans-Sahara Highway from Lagos to Tripoli through Algeria. Advantages of Road Transport It’s a faster means of transport compared to human and animal transport. It’s cheaper compared to railway transport because construction of roads is cheaper than that of railways. It’s available at ones convenient time. Roads can be constructed in stages improved and even repaired while they are being used. It’s flexible in that road connections are available all over the country. Disadvantages Traffic congestion and jams when there are many vehicles on roads which leads to delays and fuel wastage. Its expensive over long distances and when transporting bulky goods. Vehicles can carry a limited number of people and amount of goods at a time making them expensive and uneconomical. It’s adversely affected by weather e.g. during heavy rains, roads become impassable and foggy conditions hinder visibility making it easier for accidents to occur. Vehicles pollute the environment by their exhaust fumes and noise which they produce. Railway Transport Means of transporting people and goods using trains or rails. Advantages of Railway Transport Less expensive compared to road transport because it can carry a large number of people and heavy and bulky goods in one trip. There is no congestion or jam because there is only one train on a given truck at any particular time. Passenger trains are comfortable for passengers travelling over long distances in that they have facilities such as accommodation, dining and toilets accommodation. Safer than motor vehicles because they are less prone to accidents. Have less maintenance costs because they don‟t require frequent repairs like roads. Disadvantages Very slow means of movement especially of perishable and urgently required goods. Expensive to construct as much iron and steel is used to construct railway lines and trains. Inflexible in that railway lines aren‟t available all over the country and their direction cannot be changed. Are affected adversely by terrain as where there are steep gradients, tunnels and winding tracks have to be used which adds to the cost of setting up railway system. Specific gauge of railway line can only be used by a specific design of train unlike roads which can be used by many varieties of vehicles. Trains can‟t use rails while they are being constructed unlike roads which can be used while they are being constructed, improved or even repaired. Examples of Railway Links in Africa Tazara railway- connects Zambia Copper Belt with the sea port of Dar-es-salaam. Benguela Railway- runs from Zambia Copper Belt to Angola. Kenya Uganda Railway- runs from Mombasa to Kisumu. It has an extension from Nakuru through Eldoret to Malaba then through Tororo to Kampala. Kenya‟s other railway branches are Voi to Taveta, Konza to Magadi, Nairobi to Nanyuki, Gilgil to Nyahururu, Nakuru to Eldoret and Kisumu to Butere.   Why There Are Few Railway Links among African Countries Administration by different colonial governments who constructed railway links only within areas of their jurisdiction. Political differences which led to mistrust and hostility which works against effort to construct railway jointly. Countries have railways of different gauges making connection to be difficult. Little interstate trade which doesn‟t warrant construction of railways to transport bulky goods. Countries

Industry -any form of economic activity through which people produce goods and services for their consumption. Industrialisation -process through which a country establishes manufacturing industries. A country is referred to as industrialised when production of manufactured goods is the main economic activity in that country. Less industrialised countries mainly produce agricultural raw materials. Factors Influencing Location and Development of Industries Raw Materials Industries are located near sources of raw materials to reduce transportation costs e.g. sugar milling factories in sugar growing areas, mostly in urban areas near airports and oil refineries at the coast since oil is bulky and expensive to transport inland. They are also established where there is a steady source of raw materials in order for them to be economically viable e.g. oil refineries at the coast Power They are located near main power supply pints to reduce the cost of transmitting power e.g. those in Jinja town near Owen falls dam. Transport and Communication Theyare located where transportation system is well established to ensure efficient and quick transportation of raw materials to industries and finished goods to the market e.g. in urban centres. They are located where there is efficient communication so as to stay in touch with their suppliers and their consumers. Well developed communication systems also lower the transport cost. Market They are located where buyers of products are available or in areas with dense population to make their operation to be economically viable since they are established for commercial purpose to make a profit e.g. in urban areas, Kenya highlands, lake region and coastal strip. Location near markets is also due to the nature of goods e.g. perishable goods have to be consumed before they go bad e.g. bread and daily products. Industries making fragile goods are located near markets to prevent the high risk of breakage during transportation e.g. glass, bricks and roofing tiles. Labour Labour intensive industries are located in densely populated areas where there is adequate and cheap labour to reduce production costs. Also so as to reduce the cost of transporting and housing workers. A country with skilled manpower has faster industrial growth than that without which are forced to depend on expatriates who are costly to hire and maintain which lowers the profits of such industries. Industries also require skilled manpower and management skills to ensure maximum output and low production costs. Water Supply Some are located near sources of water such as large permanent rivers and lakes to provide water for processing raw materials e.g. coffee pulping, sugar milling e.g. Mumias near R. Nzoia, Sony near R. Migori and Chemilil near R. Nyando. Government Policies Decentralisation of industries or encouraging by providing incentives location of industries from urban to rural areas. Incentives Tax exemptions Protection from foreign competition. Aims Develop all parts. Create jobs in rural areas to minimize rural-urban migration. Take industries where labour is found. Open remote or underdeveloped areas for development. To reduce congestion in the capital city. Environmental reasons whereby industries are located away from residential areas because they produce harmful fumes and a lot of noise. Security reasons to prevent industries from being attacked by terrorists because if they were all together there would be a great loss. E.g. EPZ industries located at Athi River to reduce congestion in Nairobi industrial area and Mariakani and Kikuyu Steel Rolling Mills established in their respective areas to open up the region for development Industrial Inertia Tendency of an industry to remain in a particular place even when the factors for its location no longer exist e.g. industries in the Ruhr Region of Germany have remained at the same place despite closure of coal fields and decline in coal as an energy source. Causes Itmay be expensive to move to a new place because new factory buildings would have to be constructed, buying new machinery and equipment. Due to availability of experienced workers. To avoid the problem of transportation and other basic infrastructural facilities. Capital A lot of capital is required in establishing and developing industry e.g. for purchasing land, putting up buildings and purchasing machinery and equipment. Countries with plenty of capital industrialise with greater ease than those with little capital which often rely on foreign aid and multinational corporations to set up domestic industries which reduces benefits accruing from such industries. Personal Decisions Security to allow secure operations. Where they can get maximum benefits. To set industries in their home areas to offer jobs to their local people. The Cost of Land A place where land is expensive discourages industrial development e.g. industries are now being established in the neighbouring towns of Kitengela, Ruiru and Athi River because land is expensive in Nairobi. Types/Classification of Industries According To Raw Materials Used, Products and Level Of Production Primary /Processing Industries Industries involved in the exploitation of natural resources (e.g. mining, fishing, forestry and agriculture) or processing raw materials into more useful and valuable form which are used in making final products e.g. coffee pulp factories, cotton ginneries, milk dairies, sugar factories, saw mills, abattoirs, leather tanneries, posho mills and sisal factories. Secondary /Manufacturing industries Ones which rely on processed goods to make final products or which make final products directly from raw materials e.g. sweet industries, bread, cement factories, oil refineries, cigarette making, pulp and paper industries, etc. Tertiary /service industries Industries involved in providing services and don‟t produce tangible goods e.g. transport and communication, trade, banking, tourism, administration, education, medical, etc. According To the State of Finished Goods Heavy Industries  Manufacture heavy and bulky products. Use heavy raw materials. Involve heavy investment in their production. Production is in large scale e.g. ship building, car manufacturing and assembling, oil refineries, steel rolling mills, fertiliser making plants, glass industries etc. Light Industries Ones involved in making goods with little volume and weight e.g. textile, cosmetics, plastic, printing, electronics, cigarette, etc. Distribution of Industries in Kenya Agricultural Industries Agricultural Food Processing Industries located where raw materials are produced because they require immediate processing e.g. tea

The power required to carry out an activity e.g. diesel, electricity, etc. Sources of Energy Classified into 2 types: renewable and non-renewable sources of energy. Renewable Sources of Energy -Which can be regenerated and used over and over again. Types of Renewable sources of Energy Sun Wind Water (geothermal, hydro power, tides and waves). 4. Biomass (wood, biogas) 5. Sun Energy from the sun is called solar energy. The sun is the primary source of all types of energy. Solar radiation can be converted into 2 types of energy. Heat Solar panels are used to tap solar energy which is then used to heat water in coiled pipes which are inside which are painted black. Mirrors are used to converge rays of the sun on one spot which are then used to heat water or cook food in a pot. Suns rays are reflected and focused on crops to dry them. Electricity Photo- voltaic cells are used which when sunlight shines on them they generate electricity which is then stored in batteries. Advantages of Solar Energy Cheap because it’s obtained from sunlight which isn‟t paid for. Requires minimal maintenance once tapping equipment has been installed. It doesn’t pollute the environment like fossil fuels (environmentally friendly) Can be stored in batteries and used when there is no sunlight. It’s inexhaustible i.e. available as long as the sun continues to shine.  Available in all parts of the world. Disadvantages Can‟t be used to run heavy machinery. Tapping equipment e.g. solar panels are expensive to buy. The batteries which it‟s stored in are cumbersome to carry around. It fluctuates in various seasons throughout the year. Large numbers of solar panels are required to produce useful amounts of energy. Wind Wind energy is mainly used in arid and semi-arid areas where wind flow isn‟t obstructed by vegetation. Wind is harvested using wind mills and converted into mechanical energy which is used for pumping water, grinding grain and generating electricity. Wind energy is also used to propel ocean going vessels e.g. dhows. Advantages It is an inexhaustible source of energy. It doesn‟t pollute the environment. Land between the windmills can be used for other purposes. Can be produced on small scale basis for local consumers. Disadvantages/ Problems. Wind mills for harvesting it are expensive to buy and install. The equipment for harvesting is relatively expensive to maintain. Many windmills are required to provide a significant amount of electrical energy. It fluctuates when the strength and direction of wind changes. The large tracts of land it requires (wind farms) alter the environment beauty. It‟s not available in many areas except in open areas. Water Geothermal Power Steam from underground is heated when in contact with hot rocks. The steam finds its way to the surface through fissures or cracks. The steam is tapped and used to turn turbines and thus generate electricity e.g. at Olkaria in Kenya. Advantages Cheaper as no fuel is required to turn turbines.  It is Continuous. It‟s inexhaustible unlike hydro-power which depends on water levels. The cost of operating geothermal power station is low compared to    hydro-power station. A good supplement for other sources of energy. Disadvantages Causes noise pollution from generation plant. Not available in many areas where there aren‟t hot springs and geysers. Gases released with steam may pollute the environment e.g. sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, methane, ammonia, etc. Its exploration is expensive because it requires expensive technology. Hydro/Water-power -Power obtained from falling water. -Most widely used renewable source of energy. -Used to generate electricity (HEP) when falling water is directed to turn turbines connected to generators to produce electricity. Advantages It doesn‟t pollute the environment. It‟s inexhaustible. Hydroelectric power can be transmitted over long distances using cables. Dams for HEP generation create lakes which can be used for recreation, irrigation and fishing. HEP can be used for many purposes e.g. transport, cooking, etc. It‟s reliable because significant levels of energy are produced. Disadvantages Affected by fluctuation of water levels in reservoirs. Construction of HEP generation dams displaces many people. It causes inconvenience to migratory species of fish. The cost of constructing and running hydro-power plants is high. Dams may break and destroy a lot of property and lives downstream. Not available throughout the world. Tides and Waves  Dams are built across an estuary. Incoming and outgoing tides rotate turbines and electricity is generated in similar way as hydro-power. Biomass -All forms of energy released by plants and animal wastes. Wood fuel Firewood, charcoal and saw dust which are used for cooking and heating. It can be exhausted if its cut at a higher rate than they are being replaced. so it requires management if it has to be sustained. Advantages of Wood It‟s a cheap source of energy. Available almost throughout the world. No maintenance cost is needed. Ashes from burned firewood can be used for plastering houses and as a fertilizer. Disadvantages Dirty because when burning it gives off smoke and soot. Pollutes environment through the gases it emits. Requires a big storage area. Its overexploitation leads to deforestation leading to problems of soil erosion, global warming and shortage of water. Power Alcohol Agricultural wastes e.g. straw, molasses and cassava are fermented to produce power alcohol which is directly used to heat or blended with gasoline to run machines. Biogas Human and animal wastes are used to produce methane (biogas) through fermentation which is used for cooking and lighting. Advantages of Biomass An inexhaustible source of energy. Fuels are efficient and relatively clean. Cheap because it makes use of waste products. Production of biogas is cheap as it doesn‟t require advanced technology. Biogas gives twice as much heat as natural gas. Slurry left behind when biogas is being made can be used as fertilizer. Available throughout the world. Disadvantages Biogas digesters require a lot of space and can‟t be set in congested areas. Can‟t be transported to distant places. Contributes to pollution which causes global warming. Animals Examples of Animals and Their Uses Oxen for ploughing and

Plants (flora) and animals (fauna) in their natural habitats. Factors that Influence Distribution of Wildlife in E. Africa Climate Heavy rainfall results in big forests which favour animals such as elephants and buffaloes e.g. Mt. Kenya forest. Arid and semi-arid climate supports hardy animals which can stand scarcity of water e.g. hart beast and gerenuk which can stand scarcity of water. Relief 1. Aspect Windward sides which receive heavy rainfall support big forests which favour animals such as elephants while leeward sides of mountains which experience low rainfall favour grasslands which favour carnivores which in turn attract herbivores e.g. Amboseli. 2. Terrain Hunting animals like cheetah are found in plains and plateaus which are relatively level where they are able to run for long distances chasing their prey. Soils Infertile and shallow soils favour grasslands which suit many herbivores and carnivores. Vegetation Birds live where there are trees so as to have shelter. Savannah woodlands with more acacia trees favour giraffes which feed on foliage from the trees. Desert and semi-desert vegetation supports hardy animals such as grants gazelle. Availability of water Fish are found in rivers, lakes and oceans e.g. Lakes Victoria Kyoga and Indian Ocean. Some animals such as hippos and crocodiles live mainly in fresh water in rivers and lakes e.g. R. Nile and L. Naivasha. Human activities Man hunts animals illegally threatening some species with extinction. Man has displaced animals from their natural habitat by clearing vegetation for agriculture and settlement. Man has taken measures to conserve endangered species of wildlife through establishing national parks, game reserves and sanctuaries. National Parks – Area set aside for preservation of scenery, wildlife and historical sites e.g. Tsavo, Mombasa marine, Amboseli, Samburu in Kenya, Kilimanjaro, Arusha and Serengeti in Tanzania and Kipendo valley and Ruwenzori in Uganda. Characteristics Established by an act of parliament Managed by the government No other form of land is permitted. May be fenced off to keep off people and prevent animals from going out.  Game Reserve An area set aside for preservation of wildlife e.g. Maasai Mara in Kenya, Selous game reserve in Tanzania and Kigezi wildlife reserve in Uganda. Characteristics Managed by local authorities. Accommodates both wildlife and livestock. May be or not fenced off. Game Sanctuary An area set aside for protection of birds or other kinds of animals which are endangered e.g. Kisumu Impala Sanctuary, Rhino Sanctuary at L. Nakuru National park and Mwaluganje Elephant sanctuary. Characteristics Hunting isn’t permitted. Predators are controlled. Breeding and keeping young ones until they are fit for release. Significance of Wildlife Tourist attraction which brings foreign exchange and revenue for the government by paying entry fee to the national parks and reserves. Wildlife conservation has led to proper utilisation of marginal areas of marginal areas where crop growing is difficult due to unreliable rainfall. Creates employment for people raising their standards of living e.g. game rangers, tourist guides and drivers and workers in tourist hotels. Wildlife preservation helps to preserve and protect water catchment areas and soil and also modifies the climate resulting in increased rainfall. A source of food e.g. animals meet and honey from bees. Wild plants such as Muarobaini are used as a source of medicine. It has led to development of industries by providing raw materials e.g. trees provide timber used in the building and construction industry. It has led to development of infrastructure when good roads are built to make Game Parks more accessible to tourists. It has diversified the economic base of East African countries instead of relying on agriculture as a major source of revenue. Problems Facing Wildlife in East Africa Poaching which is likely to bring rare species of animals to extinction e.g. rhinos and elephants. Adverse climatic conditions which causes death of some animals due to shortage of water and pasture. Floods which drown animals and destroy plants depriving animals of pasture. Bush fires which destroy large tracts of land and kill animals which may cause extinction of rare species and expose land to agents of erosion. Overgrazing by high population of herbivores resulting in destruction of vegetation which exposes land to agents of erosion destroying habitats of animals causing them to migrate to areas with adequate pasture. Wildlife-human conflict where by pastoralists kills carnivores which kill their livestock. Pests and diseases such as Feline Immunodeficiency Virus which threatens to reduce the lion population in many parts of Africa. Human activities e.g. Overgrazing by livestock where grazing is allowed leading to destruction of the natural habitat for wildlife. Destruction of vegetation by tourists‟ vehicles which reduces the amount of food for browsing animals. Encroachment of land which was formerly reserved for wildlife by clearing land for settlement and agriculture which has led to killing of animals. Overfishing which threatens the survival of certain species of fish and other marine life. Environmental pollution such as release of sewage from lodges which pollutes the water leading to the poisoning of animals which drink it e.g. at L. Nakuru where it has led to the death of flamingos and noise pollution from vehicles and people which disturbs animals making them unable to feed well. Management and Conservation of Wildlife Wild life management is effective planning and control of wildlife while wildlife conservation is protection of wildlife against interference and destruction by people. Management Measures Educating people through print and electronic media on the need to preserve wildlife. Establishing wildlife clubs in schools to create awareness on the importance of wildlife conservation. Formation of wildlife conservation bodies e.g. Kenya Wildlife Service charged with management and conservation of wildlife. Initiating game ranching or wildlife farms to control overexploitation of wildlife resources from the natural habitats. Culling of old animals to give room for the younger ones and to control the animal numbers. Translocation of animals whose population increases beyond the capacity of park to other parks where their number is small to prevent the problem of overgrazing. Encouraging of domestic tourism by lowering entry fee into parks to help people

The act of catching fish and other aquatic animals. Fisheries are fishing grounds or areas where water resources such as fish, seals, clubs, whales, etc. are exploited. Factors Influencing Fishing Physical Factors Presence of Plankton Large shoals of fish are found in shallow waters of lakes and seas where there is plenty of plankton. They thrive where depth of waters less than 180 m deep because it is up to where suns rays can reach. Nature of the Coastline There is more fish on coasts with sheltered inlets and estuaries because of calm water and shelter from natural enemies like predators e.g. Fiords of Norway. Relief People in some countries engage in fishing due to mountainous landscape which hinders other economic activities such as agriculture e.g. Japan, Norway and Alaska. Climatic Conditions In temperate regions there is more fish because there is cool waters which plankton requires to grow while in tropical lands there is less fish due to high temperatures resulting in warm waters which hinders plankton growth. Convergence of Cold and Warm Ocean Currents There is plenty of fish in areas where warm and cold ocean currents meet because upwelling takes nutrients to the surface and improves the circulation of oxygen and cold ocean currents cool waters in tropical regions resulting in conducive conditions suitable for plankton thriving e.g. the coast of Namibia washed by the cold Benguela current. Human Factors Supply of Labour Fishing is intensively carried out in Europe, Asia and N. America due to labour availability as its labour intensive.   Market Fishing is done extensively in highly populated and developed regions with a ready market because fish is a perishable commodity e.g. in Norway, Japan, China, etc. Fish Eating Culture Fishing is extensively done in areas where there is a habit of eating fish e.g. Norway and Japan. Transport and Preservation Facilities Fishing is done extensively in countries with transport and refrigeration facilities because fish is perishable and has to be transported in refrigerated lorries and ship. Capital Fishing is extensively done in developed countries because they can afford huge sums of money required for hiring labour force, buying fishing equipment and preservation facilities. Technology Rapid growth of fishing industry in developed countries is as a result of presence of advanced equipment like large refrigerated ships, trawl nets, fish detecting equipment, etc. Types of Fishing Pelagic Fishing Catching of fish which live close to the surface e.g. mackerel, menhaden, herring, sardines and tuna. Best method to catch pelagic fish is drifting and seining. Demersal Fishing Catching fish that live at the bottom of deep water bodies e.g. cod, haddock, Pollock and halibut. Methods are trawling and long lining. Inshore Fishing Fishing close to the shores in shallow sheltered coastal waters and the lower stretches of rivers. Fish caught are shell fish, lobsters, prawns, shrimps and crabs. Methods involved are casting nets, hooks and line. Fresh Water Fishing Fishing done in fresh water bodies such as streams, rivers, lakes, ponds and paddy fields. – Examples of fresh water fish are sturgeon, carp, tilapia and trout. Methods are line and drifting methods. Methods of Fishing Traditional Fishing Methods Commonly practised in tropical areas along the African coast and the inland fisheries. Fishing is mainly done for subsistence purposes. Simple hand- made equipments are used. The methods are employed in small scale. Types Basket Method A basket with a cone opening with bait inside is used. It is placed at the shallow end of the water. The fish are attracted by the bait. Fish run to hide in the basket get inside and are trapped. The catch is relatively small. Using a sharpened arrow or stick to strike Fish. One fish is caught at a time. Dangerous in waters infested with crocodiles and hippopotamuses. Using Barriers made of reeds or sticks to catch fish in flood waters. Are placed on the downstream side of a flooded region and when water levels drop the fishermen scoop the fish. Herbs Sprinkling crushed herbs in waters making fish to become unconscious then the fishermen collect fish from the river using hands. Use of Lamp and Net Placing a lit lamp on the edge of the boat to attract fish. Fish swim towards the light and are caught using net. Throwing a line with a baited hook into the water. The fish are attracted by the bait which they swallow together with the hook. The line is pooled from the water together with the fish. Gill Nets -Nets with mesh which lets only the head of a fish through and then traps it by the gills. -They can be swerved across or round the river on the path of fish. Modern Fishing Methods Seining Method is used to catch pelagic and anadromous/migratory fish which swim in shoals. A Bag like nets with small meshes (seine) attached to two boats on each end is cast into the sea. It‟s kept open and held in position by floats on top and weights at the bottom. – Fish move towards the net and get trapped. The net is hauled over and fish emptied onto the ship or the net is hauled to the shore (haul seining). Leads to overfishing because it doesn‟t discriminate the ages of fish caught. Mainly used to catch demersal fish. A bag shaped net is attached to a trawler (ship) is is cast into deep waters – The upper part is kept open by floats and lower part kept down by weights. The net is dragged by the trawler along the sea bed. The trawl net sweeps in the fish. The net is hauled into the trawler and the fish is emptied onboard. Also catches immature fish. Line Fishing -The method is used to catch demersal fish. Fishing boats spread out long line with several baited hooks on them. Floats keep the lines suspended and also show the fishermen where the lines are. Baited hooks catch the fish as they compete to feed. Hooks are drawn and fish unhooked and

Land reclamation is the process of converting wasteland into farm land for growing of crops and keeping of animals while land rehabilitation is the process of restoring land to its former productive state. Importance Intensify food production to feed the ever increasing population To overcome land shortage and pressure. Methods of Land Reclamation Irrigation Artificial method of supplying water to a region which doest receive adequate rainfall or to ensure continuous crop production. Done in dry areas with low rainfall and regions experiencing dry periods to sustain growth of crops. Dams are used to store water. Advantages Can be used for HEP generation For fish farming Supply water for domestic use (d) Control floods. Negative effects Can be a cause of deaths by drowning Breeding ground for mosquitoes which transmit Malaria. breakage can cause destruction of life and property Factors Determining the Amount of Water Required for Irrigation Climate: Areas receiving low rainfall require more water. Soils: Sandy soils require more water than clays due to low water retention ability. Crop: Paddy rice requires water logged soils while vegetables require wet and well drained soils. Size of fields: Small plots require small amounts of water while large plots require large amount of water. Methods of Irrigation 1. Water lifting method Lifting water from a source by using a bucket or watering can and pouring it on the crops. – Used widely in market gardens and on farms adjacent to the water. 2. Flood/basin irrigation Diverting river water into a canal then to plots where it‟s flooded. – Commonly used in irrigation schemes. 3. Sprinkler or overhead irrigation Taking water to the fields by pipes and applying it on crops by rotating sprinklers mounted on vertical pipes. Used on golf courses and market gardening. 4. Trickle irrigation – Plastic pipes with holes laid in the fields through which water trickles to the base of plant. – Popular where fruits and flowers are grown. 5. Canal irrigation Directing water through canal to farms. Commonly used in areas experiencing low rainfall e.g. Yatta in Machakos (f) Drip irrigation Inverting bottles filled with water into the roots of a plant. Used in low rainfall areas to grow trees, fruits and flowers. Drainage of Swamps – Process of draining excess water from the land. – Problems of land with excess water are: Is breeding ground for disease causing vectors. Is water logged and unsuitable for agriculture. Is prone to flooding which destroys life and property. Processes Involved Digging ditches for water to ooze into and flow away by gravity Planting eucalyptus which takes up a lot of water e.g. at Kakuzi in Makuyu. Laying perforated pipes in ditches which water will seep into and flow away by gravity. – Areas in Kenya with have been reclaimed by draining are: (a) Yala on lower courses of R.Yala (b) Bunyala on lower courses of R.Nzoia. – The project was conceived in 1970. Objectives of the Project of Draining Them Free the area of pests. Prepare land for settlement and agriculture. Ease population on Kano plains. Reduce flooding and associated hazards. Develop the otherwise remote area. Achievements  Flooding has been controlled. About 800 hectares are available for agriculture and settlement. Water borne diseases have been brought under control. Control of Pests Mosquitoes Fumigation Draining of stagnant water Spraying Clearing of bushes near settlements. Rodents, birds, squirrels and porcupines trapping poisoning hunting Scaring away Tsetse flies They thrive in damp areas with high temperatures and prefer bushy vegetation as breeding grounds. Examples of tsetse fly infested areas are Lambwe valley in Kenya and Miombo woodland in Tanzania. The control of tsetse fly at Miombo woodland was aimed at: The control was done by The International Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE). Eliminating the pest to obtain land for agriculture. To treat the sick people and animals to check the spread of resultant diseases. Measures Taken Bush Clearing Selective clearing of bushes was applied to prevent soil degradation. Caused tsetse fly to lack a place to breed and killed adult flies and pupae due to low humidity. Bush Spraying – Spraying from the ground or from a low flying aircraft. Doesn‟t affect other organisms. Disadvantages Some insecticides such as DDT have serious environmental effects. The fly develops resistance and a high dose of chemicals has to be used. Kills other useful organisms. Sterilisation males Making the insect unable to reproduce by obstructing its reproductive organs. Luring the male flies to some chemical substance which sterilises them. When they mate with the females fertilisation doesn‟t occur which reduces insect population. Traps Square of black cloth coated with glue on which the insects stick. Traps impregnated with insecticides which kills the insects. Creation of Buffer Zones Belt of 5 km wide with dense cultivated vegetation to create barrier which the fly couldn‟t cross. Killing of the Hosts Wild animals which the fly fed were selectively hunted and killed. Methods of Land Rehabilitation Afforestation and Reafforestation – Improve the productivity of land in the following ways: Controls soil erosion by: Acting as wind breakers Leaves reduce impact of raindrops on the soil – Roots hold/bind the soil particles together. Vegetation reduces runoff and increases the rate of infiltration of rain water ensuring there is a complete water cycle. Decayed vegetation provides humus which restores soil fertility. Roots help moisture to percolate deeply into the ground. Modifies the climate of an area by moisture being released to the atmosphere causing higher rainfall and lowering the temperature. Bush Fallowing Cultivating a field for a period of 2-3 years then abandoning it for another so that it may regain fertility naturally by wild vegetation adding humus into the soil.  Grass Strips and Cover Crops – Grass and cover crops e.g. sweet potato vines, beans and peas reduce the speed of running water thus helping to check soil erosion. Mulching Covering the soil using crop residues or artificial materials such as polythene sheets. Helps to conserve the soil in the following ways: Reduces evaporation helping

TOPIC 1 : LAND RECLAMATION – Click to view TOPIC 2 : FISHING – Click to view TOPIC 3 : WILDLIFE AND TOURISM – Click to view TOPIC 4 : ENERGY – Click to view TOPIC 5 : INDUSTRY – Click to view TOPIC 6 : TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION – Click to view TOPIC 7 : TRADE – Click to view TOPIC 8 : POPULATION – Click to view TOPIC 9 : URBANISATION – Click to view TOPIC 10 : MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION OF ENVIRONMENT – Click to view

The practice of cultivating crops and rearing of animals Factors Influencing Agriculture Physical Factors Climate Temperature Some domestic animals do well in hot and warm areas e.g. goats and camels while others do well in cool areas e.g. exotic breeds of cattle such as Guernsey. Some crops do well in cool areas e.g. tea and wheat while some others do well in warm areas e.g. sisal and cotton. High temperatures increase the rate of evaporation of moisture which causes crops to wither and eventually die. Night frosts damage tender leaves of some crops e.g. tea and bananas. 2. Sunshine Needed for photosynthesis process in which plants manufacture food for growth and formation of fruits and seeds. Sufficient sunshine is required during ripening of crops to ensure that they have high sugar content. – Sunshine is required during harvesting to prevent crop from rotting and also for drying harvested crops. 3. Winds Winds accelerate evaporation and transpiration which may cause crops to wither and eventually die. Hot and dry winds damage crops such as cocoa by causing them to ripen prematurely. Wind is important for pollination necessary for fruit and seed formation. Violent wind may cause falling of tall varieties of crops like maize and bananas. 4. Moisture Inadequate moisture causes failed germination and retarded growth of crops. Too much water causes root and fruit rot. Livestock rearing is realised in areas which receive moderate to abundant rainfall Insufficient rainfall leads to shortage of pasture for animals causing poor quality and low production Soil Deep soils favour growth of deep rooted crops while shallow soils favour growth of shallow rooted crops. There is retarded growth of crops in infertile soils. Clay soils are suitable for growing of rice because they retain water for a long time. Volcanic soil favour growth of crops requiring acidic soils e.g. coffee and tea. Soil water is required for germination and facilitating uptake of minerals in solution. Topography/relief 1. Altitude Influences temperature determining type of crops and animals to be reared. 2. Terrain Most crops do well on sloping land as it is well drained e.g. coffee and tea. Rolling plateaus and plains are suitable for large scale mechanized farming and irrigation. Gentle terrain eases cultivation and favours animals as they can graze with ease. 3. Aspect Slopes facing the sun can support crop growing and livestock rearing because they are warmer while those facing away tend to be cooler and are dominated by forests and grasslands. Windward slopes are wetter than leeward slopes and more suitable for growing crops and rearing animals while leeward slopes are dominated by grasslands and more suitable for beef livestock rearing. Biotic factors 1. Weeds Compete with plants for moisture, nutrients and sunlight leading to low and poor quality yields. Can choke pastures on which animals feed. Can increase the cost of agriculture as a lot of money is spent on hiring labour to weed the farms and buying chemical herbicides. 2. Insects Locusts and army warms eat green leaves and stems on their way destroying everything. Tsetse flies and ticks transmit livestock diseases i.e. trypanosomiasis and East Coast Fever. Some insects such as bees and butterflies are useful to crop farming because they aid in pollination. Bees give us honey. Controlling pests increases cost of agriculture. 3. Small Animals – Squirrels eat newly planted maize. Rats and mice destroy harvested grains. Quelea birds feed on rice while on the farm reducing its yield. 4. Diseases – Diseases weaken and eventually kill plants and animals. Diseases also weaken and kill humans which cause labour shortage increasing labour costs. Controlling diseases also increases cost of agriculture. Human/ Social factors Traditions Gender In some communities, food production is a sole responsibility of women and children so the produce and land under cultivation will depend on women and children labour input e.g. W. Africa. Traditional foods Types of crops grown in most parts are traditional/staple foods of those communities. Prestige Maasai value cattle and whoever has the most cattle is regarded in high esteem. Land Tenure System Cash crops such as coffee can‟t be grown on leased land. Large scale farming can‟t be practiced on excessively fragmented land. Nomadic pastoralism and shifting cultivation can be practiced in communally owned land. Religious Beliefs Hindus don‟t practise commercial cattle rearing because they treat cow as a sacred animal. Pig rearing isn‟t practiced in regions with large presence of Muslims such as Arabic countries because Koran terms pig as unclean. Economic Factors 1. Operating Costs If capital isn‟t available he will farm on a smaller piece of land and vice versa. A farmer may decide not to grow a type of crop such as those easily perishable to avoid incurring cost in transporting and storing of produce to maintain their freshness. 2. Price Fluctuations Price fall discourage some farmers causing some to neglect or uproot their crops and venture in other areas such as horticulture and dairy farming. When prices are favourable farmers may expand acreage under production. 3. Govt Policy/Political Factors – Govt may encourage productivity by subsidies and guaranteeing prices. May tackle overproduction by withdrawing the same. May affecting acreage under particular types of crops e.g. by encouraging growing of cash crops or food crops. Trade Restrictions Quota system ensures production doesn‟t greatly exceed demand since a country won‟t be able to export more quantity than it has been allocated. Types of Agriculture Arable Farming Cultivation and management of crops. Types Subsistence Arable farming – Growing crops to provide for the farmer and his family. Types Shifting Cultivation/Simple Subsistence Farming Farming in which a plot in a virgin forest is cultivated for 3-5 years after which its left fallow to regain fertility and a new section of forest is cultivated. Areas where it‟s practiced – D.R.C, Zambia and Malaysia. Method of Cultivation A plot is sited in a virgin forest on well drained hill slopes. Land is slashed and vegetation put on fire for ashes provide potash which improves fertility. The land is