December 9, 2022

Introduction Planting materials are either planted directly in a seedbed or indirectly through a nursery bed. A seedbed is a piece of land which could be small or large and prepared to receive planting materials. A nursery bed on the other hand is a small plot of land specially prepared for raising seedlings or planting materials before transplanting. It is usually 1m wide and any convenient length depending on the quantity of seedlings to be raised. A seedling bed is a special type of nursery bed used for raising seedlings pricked out from the nursery bed due to overcrowding before they are ready for transplanting. Pricking out refers to the removal of seedlings from a nursery bed to a seedling bed. Nursery practices refer to all the activities carried out throughout a nursery life to raise seedlings. . Importance of Nursery Bed in Crop Production To facilitate the production of many seedlings in a small area. It is easy to carry out management practices in a nursery than in the seedbed. It facilitates the planting of small seeds which develop into strong seedlings that are easily transplanted. It ensures transplanting of only healthy and vigorous growing seedlings. It reduces the period taken by the crop in the field. Excess seedlings from the nursery may be sold to earn income.  Selection of a Nursery Site Factors to consider; Nearness to the water source. Type of soil.-should be well drained, deep and fertile, preferably loam soil. Topography.-it should be situated on a gentle slope to prevent flooding and erosion through surface run-off. Previous cropping.-to avoid build up of pests and diseases associated with particular plant families, consider the preceding crops. Security.-select a site that is protected from theft and destruction by animals. Protection against strong winds and heat of the sun.-select a sheltered place. i.e. to avoid excessive evapotranspiration and uprooting seedlings.  Types of Nurseries Categories of nurseries: Vegetable Nursery: They are used for raising the seedlings of vegetable crops. Tomatoes, cabbages, kale, onions, brinjals and peppers. Vegetable Propagation Nurseries: They are used for inducing root production in cuttings before they are transplanted, The cuttings can be planted directly in the soil and hence called bare root nurseries. Or planted into containers such as pots, polythene bags and others, hence called containerized nurseries. Tree Nurseries: These are used for raising tree seedlings. The seedlings can be raised in bare root nurseries or in containerized nurseries. Nursery Management Practices: These are the practices carried out in the nursery while the planting materials are growing. They include: Mulching. –light mulch should be applied on thenursery bed.It be  should be removed on the 4th day Weed control. Shading. Pricking out. Pests and disease control. Hardening off Watering.  Preparation of vegetative materials for planting: Cuttings -These are plant parts such as stems, leaves and roots induced to produce roots and used as planting materials. Grafting – It is the practice of uniting two separate woody stems. The part bearing the roots is referred to as root stock while the part which is grafted onto the rootstock is known as The scion has buds which develop into the future plant. The ability of the rootstock and the scion to form a successful union is termed as Methods of Grafting Whip or tongue grafting: In this case the diameter of the rootstock and the scion are the same. It is carried out when the diameter of the scion and the rootstock is ‘pencil’ thick. Side grafting: In this case the diameter of the rootstock is bigger than that of  the scion. Other types of grafting include ; Approach grafting, Notch grafting Bark grafting. Budding: It is the practice of uniting a vegetative bud to a seedling of another plant. The scion has only one bud and some bark with or without wood. The bud is inserted in a slit made on the bark of the stock. It is held tightly on the stock by tying with a budding tape until it produces a shoot. Methods of Budding: T-budding Top budding Patch budding. Importance of Budding and Grafting: Plants with desirable root characteristics but with undesirable products may be used to produce desirable products for example lemon­-orange graft. They facilitate the changing of the top of the tree from being undesirable to desirable They make it possible to grow more than one type of fruit or flower on the same plant. They help to propagate clones that cannot be propagated in any other way. They help to shorten the maturity period. Layering It is the process by which a part of a plant is induced to produce roots while still attached to the mother plant. Once the roots have been produced, the stem is then cut off and planted. Types of layering; Marcotting or aerial layering. Tip layering. Trench layering. Compound or serpentine. Tissue Culture for Crop Propagation Tissue culture is a biotechnology used in cloning vegetatively propagated plants. It is based on the ability of plant tissue (or cells) to regenerate other parts of the plant. The tissues are derived from shoot tips where cells are undergoing rapid cell division and are not differentiated. The cells are then provided with the right conditions which enable them to multiply and develop roots.      The Right Conditions  for tissue culture: Culture medium. Correct temperature. Correct light intensity and Correct relative humidity. Importance of Tissue Culture in Crop Propagation It is used to recover and establish pathogen-free plants especially in the control of viral diseases. It is used in mass production of plantlets or propagules. It is fast and requires less space than the cultural methods of using cutting which requires a bigger space. Transplanting Seedlings Transplanting of vegetable and tree seedlings are generally the same. Generally, vegetable seedlings are ready for transplanting when they are one month old or have 4 -6 leaves or are about 10-15cm in height. Before transplanting, the nursery bed is adequately watered 3 – 4 hours before lifting the seedlings. This ensures the seedlings are

Planting is the placement of the planting material in the soil for the purpose of regeneration in order to produce more of the plant species. Types of planting materials Seeds Seeds are produced by flowering after pollination and fertilization. They contain the part of the plant that germinates and subsequently grows in to new plants. Advantages of using seeds as planting materials. Seeds are easily treated against soil borne pests and diseases. They are not bulky therefore storage is easy. They are easy to handle during planting making operation easy. When planting seeds, it is easy to use machines like seed planters and drillers. It is easy to apply manures and fertilizers together with seeds during planting. Fertilizers and manures application can be easily mechanized. It is possible to develop new crop varieties due to cross pollination.   Disantivantages of using seeds as planting materials.  Some seeds have long dormancy and they may need special treatment in order to germinate. Plants raised from seeds have variations from the mother plant due to cross pollination, This may introduce undesirable characteristics. Soil borne pests may damage seeds if left for sometime in the soil before rain falls. Some seeds may lose viability if stored for a long time. This leads to gaps in the farm. Vegetative materials. These are plant parts which have the ability to produce roots, they grow and develop in to new plants. Plant parts such as leaves, roots or stems can be used for planting as long as they are capable of rooting.  Advantages of using vegetative materials for planting. Crops originating from vegetative materials matures faster than those from seeds. The crops shows uniformity in such qualities as disease resistance, seed size, colour, keeping or storing quality and chemical composition. It is possible to produce many varieties of compatible crops on the same root stock. Use of the vegetative materials is easier and faster, especially where seeds show prolonged dormancy. The resulting plant has desired shape and size for ease of harvesting and spraying. It facilitates the propagation of crops which are seedless or those that produce seeds which are not viable or have a long dormancy period. Such crops include sugar-cane, bananas, Napier grass and others. Disadvantages. Vegetative propagation does not result in new crop varieties. Keeping the materials free of diseases is difficult. Materials cannot be stored for long. The materials are bulky and there fore difficult to store and transport.       Plant parts used for vegetative propagation. These are tiny sisal plants produced in the inflorescence almost at the end of the plant growth cycle. They resemble the mother plant except that they are smaller in size. They are produced by the branches of the sisal pole. When manure they mature they develop rudimentary roots and fall off to the ground just below the pole. They are the collected and raised in the nurseries before they are transplanted t\o the main field. One sisal pole may produce as many as 3,000 bulbils. They are usually 10cm long. They make good planting materials and are better than sucke Splits These are plantlets divided from the existing mother plant with complete with complete leaves and rooting system. They are used to propagate most pasture grasses and pyrethrum. Pyrethrum splits are raised first in nursery and then transplanted to the field. Crowns and slips These are materials used to propagate pineapples Crowns are born on top of the fruits and are broken off and prepared for planting. They are more preferred to suckers because they give uniform growth and take two years to reach maturity. Slips are borne to the base of the pineapple fruits. They are cut and prepared for plantings. Their growth rate is faster than for crowns giving average uniformity. They take 22 months from planting to maturity. Crowns and slips are planted in the nurseries first before transplanting to the main seed bed. Suckers These are small plants that grow from the base of the main stem. They have adventitious roots which grow quickly when planted to form a new plant. They are used to propagate bananas, sisal, and pineapples. When planted, suckers give uneven growth leading to maturity at different times. T hey should be planted when they are young. Tubers These are underground food storage organs which are short and thick. They are used as vegetative propagation materials because they sprout and produce roots for growth. There are mainly two types of tubers, the stem and root tubers. Root tubers develop from the thickening of the adventitious roots. Root tubers are not commonly used for propagation since they produce weak stems. A good example of a root tuber is the sweet potato. On the other hand stem tubers have some auxiliary buds which are sometimes referred to as ‘eyes’. These eyes sprout to produce stems which grow into plants. Stem tubers are therefore swollen stems with scales leaves. A good example of a stem tuber is Irish potato. These are soft wood cuttings which produce roots easily upon planting to give rise to new plants. They are cut from the mother plants and planted directly into the field. Soft wood cuttings (vines) are taken from rapidly growing shoots. The soft upper parts of the shoots are preferred. When preparing the cuttings, some leaves and nodes are included. Roots are produced from the nodes.   Cuttings and setts Cuttings are portion of plants parts which are cut and then planted. They may be from stems, roots or leaves. A stem cutting must have a bud which develops into shoot. The root cutting must have an eye. Cutting must have an eye. Cuttings must produce leaves as soon as possible so that they can start making their own food. Sometimes cuttings are induced to produce roots by use of rooting hormones. Once the cuttings have developed roots, they give rise to new plants. In some crops, the cuttings are big enough to be planted directly to the main seedbed whereas there are

Introduction Plant nutrients occur in the soil in form of soluble substances. These substances are taken in by the plants in different quantities depending on their roles in the plant tissues. Essential Elements These are nutrients needed by plants for various uses. They are divided into two broad categories namely: Macronutrients micronutrients. Macro-nutrients These are also referred to as major nutrients. They are required by the plant in large quantities. They include; carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phophorus, potassium, sulphur, calcium  magnesium. Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are referred to as fertilizer elements, Calcium, magnesium and sulphur, are referred to as liming elements. Role of Macronutrients in Plants  Nitrogen (NO3,NH4++) Sources: Artificial fertilizers Organic matter Atmospheric fixation by lightning Nitrogen fixing bacteria. Role of Nitrogen in Plants Vegetative growth Chlorophyll formation Build up of protoplasm. Improves leaf quality in leafy crops such as tea and cabbages.   Deficiency Symptoms Yellowing of the leaves/chlorosis. Stunted growth. Premature ripening. Premature shedding of the leaves. Light seeds. Effect of Excess Nitrogen Scorching of the leaves. Delayed maturity. Loss of Nitrogen From the Soil: Soil erosion. Leaching. Volatilization. Crop removal. Used by microorganisms.   Phosphorus (H2 P04, HPO2-4 P2O5)       Sources: Organic manures Commercial fertilizers Phosphate rocks Role of Phosphorus Encourages fast growth of the roots. Improves the quality of the plant. Hastens maturity of the crops. Influences cell division. Stimulates nodule formation in legumes. Deficiency symptoms Growth of the plant is slow.  Maturity is delayed. Leaves become grey, purple in colour. Yield of grains, fruits and seed is lowered.   Loss of Phosphorus From the Soil Soil erosion. Leaching Crop removal Fixation by iron and aluminium oxide. Potasium (K+, K2O) Sources; Crop residue and organic manures. Commercial fertilizers Potassium bearing minerals e.g. feldspar and mica. Role of Potassium in Plants Increases plant vigour and disease resistance. Increases the size of grains and seeds. Reduces the ill-effects due to excess nitrogen. Prevents too rapid maturation due to phosphorus. Deficiency Symptoms Plants have short joints and poor growth. Plants lodge before maturing. Leaves develop a burnt appearance on the margin. Leaves at the lower end of the plant become mottled, spotted or streaked. In maize, grains and grasses firing starts at the tip of the leaf and proceeds from the edge usually leaving the midrib green. Loss of Potassium From the Soil Crop removal. Leaching. Soil erosion. Fixation in the soil.  Calcium (Ca2+) Source: Crop residues and organic manures. Commercial fertilizers. weathering of soil minerals. Agricultural limes for example dolomite, limestone. Role of Calcium in Plants Improves the vigour and stiffness of straw. Neutralizes the poisonous secretions of the plants. Helps in grain and seed formation. Improves the soil structure. Promotes bacterial activity in the soil. Corrects the soil acidity. Deficiency symptoms Young leaves remain closed. There are light green bands along the margins of the leaves. Leaves in the terminal bud become hooked in appearance there is a die-­back at the tip and along the margins. Loss of Calcium Crop removal Leaching Soil erosion Magnesium (Mg2+) Sources: Crop residues and organic manures Commercial fertilizers Weathering of soil minerals. Agricultural limes. Role of Magnesium in Plants Forms part of chlorophyll. Promotes the growth of the soil bacteria and enhances the nitrogen fixing power of the legumes. Activates the production and transport of carbohydrates and proteins in the growing plant. Deficiency symptoms Loss in green colour which starts from the bottom leaves and gradually moves upwards. The veins remain green. Leaves curve upwards along the margins. Stalks become weak and the plant develops long branched roots. The leaves become streaked.   Sulphur (S04 2- ,SO2)  Sources: Commercial fertilizers. Soil mineral containing sulphides Atmospheric sulphur from industries. Rain water Role of Sulphur in Plants Formation and activation of coenzyme-A. Sulphur is a constituent of amino acids. Influence plant physiological processes. Deficiency Symptoms Small plants/stunted growth. Poor nodulation in legumes. Light green to yellowish leaves/ chlorosis. Delayed maturity.  Micro-nutrients Also referred to as trace or minor nutrients. They are required in small quantities/traces. They are essential for proper growth and development of plants. They include; Iron,  Manganese, Copper, Boron, Molybdenum Chlorine. Role of Micronutrients and Their Deficiency Symptoms Copper Role in oxidation-reduction reactions. Respiration and utilization of iron Deficiency symptoms-yellowing of young leaves. Iron Synthesis of proteins. Takes part in oxidation-­reduction reactions. Deficiency symptoms – leaf chlorosis Molybdenum Nitrogen transformation in plants. Metabolization of nitrates to amino acids and proteins Deficiency symptoms –leaf curl and scathing. Manganese – Same as molybdenum. Zinc Formation of growth hormone. Reproduction process Deficiency symptoms – white bud formation. Boron – Absorption of water. Translocation of sugar Inorganic Fertilizers These are chemically produced substances added to the soil to improve fertility. Classification According to: Nutrients contained Straight – contain only one macronutrient. Compound fertilizers – contain more than one macronutrient Time of application Some applied when planting. Top dressing after crop emergence Effects on the soil pH. Acidic fertilizers. Neutral fertilizers. Basic fertilizers. Properties and Identification of Fertilizers Nitrogenous Fertilizers Characteristics Highly soluble in water. Highly mobile in the soil hence it is applied as a top dress. Easily leached because of the high solubility hence does not have residual effect on the soil. Has scorching effect on young crops during wet seasons. Easy to volatilize during hot season. They have a tendency to cake under moist conditions. They are hygroscopic hence should be stored in dry conditions. Examples: Sulphate of Ammonia (NH4) 2 SO4· Physical appearance: white crystals, Has acidic effect, Contains 20% N. Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate [(NH4)2 SO4+ NH4 NO3] Colour: granules which appear yellow orange, less acidic, contains 26% N. Calcium Ammonium Nitrate (CAN) Colour: greyish granules, neutral in nature, contains 21 % N. Urea Colour: small whitish granules Easily leached or volatilized, contains 45- 46%N.   Phosphate Fertilizers Has low solubility and immobile. Non-scorching. Has a high residual effect hence benefit the next season’s crop. Easy to store because they are not hygroscopic. Examples; Single super-phosphate Appearance: whitish, creamy white granules, contains 20-21 % P2O5 Double super-phosphate Appearance: dark greyish

TOPIC 1 : SOIL FERTILITY II ( INORGANIC FERTELIZERS ) – Click to view TOPIC 2 : CROP PRODUCTION II ( PLANTING ) – Click to view TOPIC 3 : CROP PRODUCTION III ( NURSERY PRACTICES) – Click to view TOPIC 4 : CROP PRODUCTION IV ( FIELD PRACTICES ) – Click to view TOPIC 5 : CROP PRODUCTION V ( VEGETABLES ) – Click to view TOPIC 6 : LIVESTOCK HEALTH I ( INTRODUCTION ) – Click to view TOPIC 7 : LIVESTOCK HEALTH II ( PARASITES )  – Click to view TOPIC 8 : LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION II ( NUTRITION ) – Click to view

Introduction Economics is the study of how man and society chooses to allocate scarce productive resources to produce various commodities, over time, and distribute them among various consumers in society. It attempts to explain how man can best use the limited resources to produce goods and services which satisfies his needs with minimum wastage or loss of these resources  Example; food, clothing shelter Agricultural economics is therefore defined as a science that aims at maximizing output while minimizing costs by combining the limited supplies of goods and services for use by the society over a certain period of time These are; land, capital, labour management Basic economic Principles   Scarcity Economic scarcity means resources are limited in supply relative to demand. This principle implies that there is no time that man can have enough resources to satisfy all his need or desires Choice/Preference Human wants are many and varied and means of satisfying them are limited. Therefore, man has to make a choice among the alternatives in order to use the resources available. Man does this by satisfying the most pressing needs first.  This is called scale of preference. Opportunity Cost Opportunity cost is the revenue forgone from the best alternative.  It exists only where there are alternatives. Where there are no alternatives the opportunity cost is equal to zero. Opportunity cost helps in decision making.  Farm Records Farm records are documents kept in the farm They show farm activities carried out over a long period of time Or information kept in the farm in written form, about the farm and all activities in it. Uses of Farm Records Show the history of the farm Show whether the farm is making a profit or loss. Show all the assets and liabilities of the farm which can be used to value the farm. Help in supporting insurance claims on death, theft, fire or loss of farm assets. Help in tax assessment to avoid over taxation. Used as a guide in planning and budgeting. Helps to detect losses or theft in the farm. Make it easy to share profits or losses in partnerships. Help in settling disputes among heirs to estate if the farmer dies without a will. Provide labour information on terminal benefits for a worker. Type of Farm Records Production Records – Show the total yield and yield per unit of each enterprise. Inventory Records – A record of all permanent and consumable goods in the farm. Consumable Goods Inventory Field Operation Records – Show in details all field practices carried out together with the input used for all the crop enterprises. Breeding Records – Show all the breeding activities in the farm. From these records it is possible to select the prolific animals and cull the infertile ones. Feeding Records – A record of the types of feeds used in the farm and their quantities. Health Records – Indicates the health conditions of the animals in the farm.

Introduction The term livestock is used to refer to all domesticated animals. These animals include cattle, sheep, goats, poultry, pigs, rabbits, camels, bees, fish and donkeys. The importance of keeping livestock: Source of food. Source of income. Cultural values. Source of animal power. Provision of raw materials for industries. Farmyard manure from the animals is used in maintaining soil fertility. Cattle dung is used in the production of biogas. Cattle Breeds Cattle can be classified into two groups based on their origin.      These are; Indigenous cattle. Exotic cattle. Indigenous Cattle Zebus – They are small in size and with a distinct hump and  include: Nandi, Bukedi Maasai cattle. The Borana These are the cattle kept in the Northern parts of Kenya. They are larger than the Zebus. Indigenous cattle are hardy hence able to tolerate the harsh environmental conditions in the tropics. They are the major suppliers of beef in Kenya. Exotic Cattle   Foreign cattle from the temperate regions. They have distinct breed characteristics and are classified into various breeds. General characteristics: They have no humps. They have low tolerance to high temperatures hence popular in cool climates of the Kenya highlands .. They are highly susceptible to tropical diseases. They have fast growth rates leading to early maturity. They are good producers of both meat and milk. They cannot walk for long distances. They have short calving intervals of one calf per year if well managed. Exotic cattle breeds fall under the following groups: Dairy cattle breeds. Beef cattle breeds. Dual purpose breeds. Dairy Cattle Breeds They include; Friesian, Ayrshire, Guernsey Characteristics of Dairy Cattle Wedge or triangular in shape. Large stomach. Docile with mild temperament. Large, well suspended udders and teats. Lean bodies. Lean and smooth neck. Large and long mammary milk wells and veins. Cylindrical; uniform and well spaced teats. Wide and well set hindquarters to accommodate the udder. Friesian-Holstein (largest of all dairy breeds) Origin: Holland Colour: Black and white Size: Cow weighs 550-680kgs Bull weighs 950 kg. Highest milk producers of all dairy breeds about 9150 kg per lactation but with least butterfat content; 3.5% Ayrshire Origin: Scotland Colour: White with brown markings. Size: Cow weighs 360-590kgs Bulls weighs 500-720kg.     Conformation: Straight top lines, horns are long and face upwards. Milk production is second to Friesian about 61OOkg per lactation with butter content of about 4%. Guernsey Origin: Guernsey Island off the coast of France. Colour: Yellowish brown to red with white legs, switch and girth .. Size: Bulls 540-770kg. Cow weighs 450- 500kgs      Conformation: Udders are less symmetrical. Average milk production is about 5185kg per lactation with a butterfat content of 4.5% hence the yellow colour of milk. Jersey (smallest of all the dairy breeds) Origin: England Colour: Yellow brown with black muzzle and switch. Size: Bulls weigh 540-700kg. Cow weighs 350-450kgs      Conformation: Dished forehead, have straight top-line and level rumps with sharp w Have protruding black eyes. Average milk production 1270kg per lactation of butterfat content 5%. They tolerate high temperatures. Beef Cattle Examples: Aberdeen Angus, Hereford, Shorthorns, Galloway, American Brahman, charolais Santa Getrudis. Characteristics of Beef Cattle Blocky or square conformation. Have thick muscles or are well fleshed. Early maturing. Deep chest and girth and short legs. Straight top and lower lines. AberdeenAngus Origin: North East Scotland. Colour: Black Shape: Cylindrical, compact and deep; It is polled.     Size: Mature bulls weigh 900kg. Mature cows weigh 840kgs.  It is found in Timau area of Kenya Hereford Origin: Engla Colour: Deep red and white-faced. Size: Average weight of bulls is 1000kg. Cows weigh 840kgs. It is found in areas such as Naivasha. Shorthorn Origin: England. Has easy fleshing ability Colour: Red, Roan or white Shape: Cylindrical, compact and deep. It is polled.       Size: Bulls weigh 700-900kg, cows weigh 545-630kgs. Galloway Origin: Scotland. Colour: Black Kept in the highland areas like Molo in Kenya. Charolais Origin: France. Colour: Creamy white. Size: Bulls weigh 1200kg, cows weigh 1000kgs. It is found in ranches in Laikipia District. Dual Purpose Breeds     Examples: Sahiwal, Red Poll and Simmental. Sahiwal Origin: India and Pakistan .. Colour: reddish brown. Size: Bulls weigh 650kg,  and cows 400kg. Milk production averages 2700-3000 per lactation with a butter fat content of 3.7%. It has a pendulous udders which does not let down milk easily. It is therefore said to be a difficult milker. It is kept in semi-arid areas such as Naivasha.     Red Poll Origin: England. Colour: Deep red with a white nose. Conformation: Polled-deep girth and short legs. Kept in semi–arid areas such as Nakuru, Mogotio.   Simmental Origin: Colour: Light red and white patches on the head. Conformation: It has broad and straight back, with well-sprung ribs and deep girth. It is well fleshed at rear quarters, well suspended udders and large teats. Sheep Breeds: Purpose of Keeping Sheep; Meat (mutton). Wool production. Exotic Sheep Wool breeds -for example merino. Dual purpose- for example Corriedale, Romney marsh. Mutton breeds -for example Hampshire Down, Dorpers. Merino Origin: Spain Characteristics: It has white face and its lips and nostrils are pink in colour. Rams have horns which are spiral in shape. It is susceptible to foot rot, worm and respiratory diseases. Corriedale Origin: New Zealand. Size: Rams 85 – 90kg. Ewes 60– 85 kg This is a dual-purpose breed with white open face and white spots on the legs. It is hornless and hardy. Romney Marsh Origin: England. Size: Rams 100 – 115kg. Ewes 84- 100 kg It is a dual-purpose breed which s hornless with wide poll and black nostrils and lips. It is average in prolificacy. It is resistant to foot rot diseases and worm infestation. Hampshire Down Origin: England. Size: Rams 125kg. Ewes 80-100 kg It is a mutton breed which is early maturing, hardy and prolific. Fleece is of poor quality because of the black fibres. Lambing percentage is 125-140. Dorper Is a crossbreed of Dorset horn and black head Persian sheep.  It is mutton breed. Dorset Horn Dual purpose

Introduction Soil fertility is the ability of the soil to provide crops with the required nutrients in their proper proportions. Characteristics of a Fertile Soil Good depth – Good soils give roots greater volume to obtain plant nutrients and provide strong anchorage. Good aeration – for the respiration of plant roots and use by soil organisms. Good water holding capacity – ensures provision of adequate water for plant growth. Proper drainage – ensures provision of adequate air for plant growth. Correct soil pH – different crops have different soil pH requirements. Adequate nutrients supply – it should supply the required nutrients in the correct amounts and in a form available to plants. Free from excessive infestation of soil borne pests and diseases. How soil loses fertility Leaching: vertical movement of dissolved minerals from the top to the lower horizons of the soil profile. Soil erosion – The removal and carrying away of the top fertile soil from one place to another. Monocropping – This is the practice of growing one type of crop on a piece’ of a land over a long time. Continuous cropping – crops take away a lot of nutrients from the soil which are never returned. Growing crops continuously without giving the soil time to rest makes the soil infertile. Change in soil pH – changes in soil pH affect the activity of soil microorganisms as well as the availability of soil nutrients. Burning of vegetation – burning of vegetation cover destroys organic matter. It also exposes the soil to the agents of soil erosion. Accumulation of salts – soils with a lot of salts are said to be saline. State of having too much salt in the soil is referred to as soil salinity. Salts accumulation cause water deficiency in plants. It may also lead to change in soil pH.   Maintenance of Soil Fertility Soil fertility is maintained through the following methods: Control of Soil Erosion ; Terracing, Contour cultivation, Strip cropping, Cut off drains Planting cover crops. Crop Rotation ; Practice of growing different crops on the same field in different seasons in an orderly sequence. Control of Soil pH : Application of liming materials such as limestone, quicklime, magnesium carbonate and slaked lime if the soil is acidic. Application of acidic fertilizers if the soil is alkaline. Application of manures. Proper drainage;        Done through: Breaking hard pan. Construction of water channels. Growing crops on cambered bed Pumping out water from the soil. Weed control: Use of herbicides. Slashing Mulching Use of proper farming practices such as early planting, correct spacing and cover crops. Intercropping – Farming practice where different crops species are grown together in the field. Minimum Tillage; Use of herbicides. Uprooting of weeds. Slashing weeds Mulching Strip cultivation. Use of Inorganic Fertilizer ; Chemical compounds manufactured to apply specific plant nutrients for example calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN). Use of Manure; Well decomposed manures release nutrients into the soil and increase its water holding capacity. Organic Manures Manures are derived from plants and animal remains. They supply organic matter to the soil which after decomposition releases plant nutrients. The end product of this decomposition is known as humus. It influences soil chemical properties and soil temperature. Manures supply a wide range of essential plant nutrients. Importance of Organic Matter in the Soil Increases the soil water holding capacity of the soil. Improves soil fertility by releasing a wide range of nutrients into the soil. Provides food and shelter for soil micro-organisms. Improves the soil structure. Buffers soil pH/moderates soil pH. Reduces the toxicity of plant poisons in the soil. Moderates soil temperature by its dark colour. Limitations in the Use of Manure They are bulky – low nutritive value per unit volume. Laborious in application and transport. They spread diseases, pests and weeds. Loss of nutrients if poorly stored. If not fully decomposed crops may not benefit from them. Types of Organic Manures Green manure. Farm yard manure. Compost manure Green Manure Made from green plants which are grown for the purpose of incorporating into the soil.   Characteristics of plants used for preparation for green manure: Have fast growth rates. Have high nitrogen content. Capable of rotting quickly. Capable of growing in poor conditions. Preparation of Green Manure Plant the green manure crop in the field. Allow the crop to grow up to flowering stage. Incorporate it into the soil through ploughing. Allow the crop to decompose for two weeks. Prepare the field for planting the major crop. Reasons why green manure is not commonly used/limitations: Most of the plants used as green manure are food crops. Green manure crops may use most of the soil moisture. Most of the nutrients are used up by soil micro-organisms in the process of decomposing the green manure. Planting of the major crop is delayed. Farm Yard Manure (FYM) Is a mixture of animal waste and crop residues used as beddings in animal houses. Factors that Determine the Quality of FYM The types of the animals used. Types of food eaten Types of litter used. Method of storage. Age of farmyard manure. Age of the animals used. Preparation of FYM Provide beddings in the houses of farm animals. Animals deposit their droppings and urine on the beddings. Animals mix them through trampling. The beddings together with dung are removed and heaped under shed to decompose. After sometime, the materials decompose and FYM is formed. It can then be used in the farm Compost Manure Is manure prepared from heaped (composted) organic materials. Factors to consider in selecting site for making compost manure: A well drained place. Direction of the prevailing wind. Size of the farm. Accessibility. Preparation of Compost Manure Two methods: Four heaps method Indore Method (Pit Method)   Indore Method (Pit Method) Procedure ; Select a sheltered place with a shade and near the field. Dig a pit with the dimension 1.2m x 1.2m x 1.2m. Place the materials in the following order: Hedge cuttings or maize stalks to

Introduction Water is a very important natural resource. It is necessary for both crops and livest Uses of water in the farm; Cleaning equipment. Irrigation in dry areas. Processing farm produce, for example, co Drinking by livestock and m Mixing agro-chemicals such as acaricide, fungicides and herbicides. Providing power in water mills to grind grain crop Cooling engines. Construction work. Sources of Water in the Farm Three major sources of water in the farm: Surface water:  Includes water from; Rivers, Streams Dams. Ground water: Includes water from; Springs, Wells Borehole Rain water: This is water tapped in various ways such as; Rooftops Rock surface, when it is raining and stored in various ways. Collection and Storage of Water Dams: These are structures constructed across rivers and channel They collect and store water for use during the dry season. Weirs: These are structures constructed across rivers to raise the water level for easy pump Unlike in the dams water flows over the barrier created across the river. Water Tanks: These are structures made of concrete, stone, metal sheets and plastics. They store water from rain or that which has been pumped from other sources. Tanks should be covered to prevent contamination from dust. Pumps and Pumping of Water Pumping is the lifting of water from one point to another by use of mechanical force. Water is pumped from the various sources and then conveyed to where it is required for use or storage.        Types of Water Pumps Used to lift water from its source. Centrifugal pumps Piston or reciprocating pumps Semi-rotary pumps and Hydram Conveyance of Water This is the process of moving water from one point, usually the source or point of storage to where it will be used or stored. Piping; This is where water is moved through pipes. The common types of pipes include: Metal pipes Plastic pipes Hose pipes Use of Containers: In this case water is drawn and put in containers . drums, jerry cans, pots, gourds, tanks and buckets . Which are carried by animals, bicycles, human beings and vehic Use of Canals: In this case water is conveyed from a high point to a lower one along a gradual slope to avoid soil erosion. Water conveyed through this way is mostly used for irrigation and livestock. Water Treatment Raw water contains impurities which may be dissolved, floating or suspended in water. These impurities are grouped into three categories, namely: Physical impurities: these are dissolved impurities detected by colour, taste and smell. Chemical impurities: these are dissolved impurities detected by use of chemical analysis. Biological impurities: these are microorganisms in water such as bacteria, viruses and algae. Importance of Treating Water To kill disease causing microorganisms such as cholera and typhoid bacteria that thrive in dirty water. To remove chemical impurities such as excess fluoride which may be harmful to human beings. To remove smells and bad taste. To remove sediments of solid particles such as soil, sand and sticks. Methods of Treating Water Aeration: this is the removal of smell and odour from water by fine spraying or bubbling of air. Sedimentation: this is where water is put in large containers so that solid particles such as sand, metal and others can settle at the bottom. Filtration: this is passing water through fine granular materials to remove solid particles and biological substances. Coagulation: addition of chemicals which precipitate impurities and help in softening of hard water. Chlorination: Sterilization to destroy disease causing organisms. Irrigation It is the artificial application of water to crops in dry areas or where water is not enough. It is one of the methods of land reclamation in case of arid and semi arid areas. Factors to Consider in Identifying and Assessing the Potential of Land for Irrigation Development Topography of the land Soil type Type of crop to be grown Water availability Human factors such as skill, capital availability and economic activities. Types of Irrigation Surface irrigation: This includes flood irrigation and basin irrigation. It is used in flat areas. The problem with this method is loss of water through seepage. It also increases soil salinity. Sub-surface Irrigation: This involves the use of porous pipes or perforated pipes. It is used in slopy areas and where water is inadequate. Overhead or Sprinkler Irrigation: It is used in any area which is not steep. Drip or Trickle Irrigation: It is used where water is little and in relatively sloppy and flat areas.  Drainage This is a method of removing excess water or lowering the water table from a marshy water-logged land. It is also a method of land reclamation.       Importance of Drainage as a Method of Land Reclamation To increase soil aeration. To raise soil temperature. To increase microbial activities in the soil. To reduce toxic substances from the soil. To increase soil volume for exploitation by plant roots.      Methods of Drainage Use of open ditches. Use of underground drain pipes. French drains. Cambered beds. Pumping out water from the soil. Planting tree species which absorb a lot of water for example eucalyptus. Water Pollution This is the process by which harmful substances get into the water. The harmful substance is referred to as a pollutant. Agricultural practices which pollute water include: Use of inorganic fertilizers. Use of pesticides. Poor cultivation practices such as over cultivation, cultivating along the river banks. Overgrazing which leads to erosion of soil thus causing siltation in water sources. Methods of Preventing Water Pollution Soil conservation measures which minimize soil losses through erosion Fencing off the water sour Adopting organic farming practices for example controlling pests and weed using non-chemical techniques. Planting grass along river banks to minimize siltation in rivers. Proper disposal of empty chemical containers.

Introduction A piece of land which is prepared is known as seedbed. A seedbed is a piece of land that is prepared ready to receive planting materials. Seedbed Preparation Reasons for Seedbed Preparation; To enable water to infiltrate. To kill weeds To improve soil aeration. To destroy pests and diseases. To incorporate organic matter in the soil. For easy planting. To facilitate root penetration. Operations in Land Preparation Land Clearing Clearing of land is necessary when: Opening up a virgin land. A stalk growing crop was previously plan There is long interval between primary and secondary cultivation. Land was left fallow for a long time. Procedure Tree felling and removal of stumps and roots. Burning Slashing Use of chemicals.      Note: Burning should be avoided where possible since it; Leads to loss of organic matter, Kills soil organisms Destroys soil structure and plant nutrients. Primary Cultivation This is the initial breaking of land. It is done early before the onset of the rains to: Give time for soil organisms to act on organic matter. Allow gaseous exchange to take place, thus carbon dioxide diffuses out of the soil while oxygen enters into the soil. Allow other operations to take place in time. Reasons for primary cultivation: Remove weeds. Burry organic matter. Open up soil for infiltration of water and air. Expose pests and disease causing organisms. Soften the soil for easy planting. Operations in primary cultivation Hand digging ;      Use of hand tools ; Jembes, Mattocks, Fork-jembes. Mechanical cultivation ;    Use of mouldboard ploughs; Disc ploughs, Chisel ploughs, Subsoilers Rippers. Use of Ox–Ploughs ;     Which can be drawn by; Oxen, Donkeys, Camels Depth of Cultivation   Depends on: The type of crop to be planted/size of seed. The implements available. The type of soil. Choice of Implement    Determined by: The condition of land. The type of tilth required/type of crop. Depth of cultivation. Secondary Tillage These are refinement practices on the seedbed that follow primary cultivation. It is also known as harrowing. Reasons for secondary Tillage: To remove the germinating weeds. To break soil clods to produce required tilth. To level the seedbed for uniform planting. To incorporate organic matter/manure into the soil.  Factors determining number of secondary cultivation: Soil moisture content. Size of the planting materials. Condition of the soil after primary cultivation. Slope of the land. Tertiary Operations: Ridging ; The process of digging soil on a continuous line and heaping on one side to produce a furrow and a bund (ridge). It is important for root crops, to allow root expansion and for soil and water conservation. Rolling: It is the compaction of the soil to produce a firm surface which increases seed-soil contact and prevents wind erosion. Levelling; Production of an even, uniform surface which promotes uniform planting. Subsoiling: This is deep cultivation into the subsoil layer to break up any hardpan which might have developed. It is done for the following reasons:– To facilitate drainage. Bring up leached nutrients to the surface. Increase aeration of the soil. To improve root penetration. The implements used include chisel plough and subsoilers.   Minimum Tillage: This is the application of a combination of farming practices with the aim of reducing the disturbance of the soil. Examples of which include: Use of herbicides. Mulching and cover-cropping. Timely operations to prevent weed infestation. Strip cultivation. Uprooting and slashing of weeds. Reasons for Minimum Tillage To reduce cost of cultivation. To control soil erosion. To preserve soil moisture. To prevent root exposure and damage. To reconstruct destroyed soil structure.

Introduction Farm tools and equipment perform specific jobs in the farm. They make work easier and more efficient. They can be classified according to their uses as follows: Livestock Production Tools and Equipment Workshop Tools and Equipment Care and Maintenance of Tools and Equipment Reasons for Maintenance To increase durability. To increase efficiency. Reduce costs of replacement. For safety of the user/avoid accidents. Avoid damage to the tool. Methods Use tools for the right work. Proper handling when using tools or equipment. Clean and oil tools after work. Keep tools in there right place. Replace and repair worn-out parts Sharpen cutting or digging edges Grease moving parts to reduce friction Use safety devices in the workshop to reduce accidents and breakages

Introduction Agricultural production is influenced by external factors: Human factors Biotic factors Climatic factors Edaphic factors. Human Factors These are human characteristics which affect the way decisions are made and operations carried out. Level of education and technology: Skills Technological ad van cements . Human health/HIV-AIDS: These affect the strength, the vigour, vision and the determination to work. HIV/AIDS is the biggest threat to human health today and has long lasting effects on  agriculture, such as; Shortage of farm labour. Loss of family support. Low living standards leading to despondency and hopelessness. Increased criminal activities. More time spent by the Government and NGO’s in Carring for the sick. Economy; Stability in the countries’ economy affect agricultural production. Government Policy: These are governmental laws which have been enacted to protect farmers, land and livestock.               They include: Food policy Policies on control of livestock parasites and diseases. Policies on marketing of both local and export products and others. Transport and communication: For agricultural goods to move from the farm to the consumers. Cultural practices and religious beliefs: These activities hinder important changes in a society that may bring agricultural development. Market forces: Demand and supply forces which affect prices of commodities in a free market. Biotic Factors These are living organisms which affect agricultural production. Pests – Destructive organisms which destroy crops. Parasites – These are invertebrates which live in or on other living organisms. Decomposers – Organisms which act on plants and animal tissues to form Pathogens – Micro-organisms which cause diseases. Predators – Animals that kill and feed on other animals. Pollinators – They transfer pollen grains from the stamens to the pistil of a flower. Nitrogen fixing bacteria -They are micro-organisms which convert atmospheric nitrogen to nitrates ready for use by the plants. Climatic Factors(weather elements). Rainfall, Temperature, Wind, Relative humidity  Light. Weather – Atmospheric conditions of a place at a given time period. Climate – weather conditions of a place observed and recorded for a period of 30-40 years. Rainfall Supplies Water: Which is necessary for the life process in plants and animals. Which makes the plant turgid hence provides support. Acts as a solvent for plant nutrients. Cools the plant during transpiration. Which is used as a raw material in photosynthesis.    When plants lack enough water they respond in different ways as follows: By closing the stomata to restrict water loss. Hastens maturity. Some will roll their leaves.   Other plants have developed permanent adaptation to water stress such as: Growing needle like leaves. Develop fleshy leaves for water storage. Develop long roots. Wilting and death in extreme conditions. Important Aspects of Rainfall: Rainfall reliability; This is the dependency on the timing of the onset of the rains. Amount of rainfall; Quantity of rain that falls in a given area within a given year. Rainfall distribution ; The number of wet months in a year. Rainfall intensity; Amount of rainfall that falls in an area within a period of 1 Temperature This is the degree of hotness or coldness of a place measured in degrees Celsius. Cardinal range of temperature ­ is the temperature required by plant to grow and thrive well. Optimum range of temperatures – the best temperature for the best performance of plants. Effects of Temperatures on Crop Production: Low temperatures: Slow the growth rate of crops due to slowed photosynthesis and respiration. High incidences of disease infection. Improves quality of crops such as tea and pyrethrum. High Temperatures Increase evaporation rate leading to Wilting. Hastens the maturity of crops. Increase disease and pest infection. Improves quality of crops such as pineapples, oranges and pawpaws. Wind Wind is moving air. Good effects of wind include: Seed dispersal Cooling of land Pollination in crops Brings rain bearing clouds Negative effects of wind: Increases the rate of evaporation of water. Causes lodging of cereals and distorts perennial crops. Increases evapo-transpiration. Spreads diseases and pests. Destroys farm structures. Relative humidity The amount of water vapour in the air Affects the rate of evapo-transpiration. Forms dew which supplies soil with moisture under dry conditions. High humidity induce rooting in cuttings. Increases disease multiplication and spread.  Light Provide radiant energy harnessed by green plant for photosynthesis. Important aspects of light: Light intensity ; The strength with which light is harnessed by chlorophyll for photosynthesis. Light duration; The period during which light is available to plants per day. Plant response to light duration is known as Short-day plants – require less than 12 hours of daylight to flower and Long-day plants – require more than 12 hours of daylight to flower and seed. Day-neutral plants require 12 hours of daylight to flower and seed. Light wavelength; This is the distance between two – successive crests of a wavelength. It dictates the difference between natural and artificial light. Chlorophyll absorbs certain wavelengths of light. Edaphic Factors Influencing Agriculture These are soil factors. Soil is the natural material that covers the surface of the earth, Made of weathered rock particles and decomposed animal and plant tissues, and on which plants grow. Importance of Soil Provides anchorage to the plants by holding their roots firmly. Provides plants with mineral salts/ nutrients which are necessary for their growth. Provide the plants with water. Contains oxygen necessary for respiration of the plants and soil micro-organisms. Soil Formation: Soil is formed through weathering process. Weathering is the breakdown and alteration of the parent rock near the surface of the earth to a stable substance. Weathering process is a combination of disintegration (breakdown) and synthesis (build up) process. Weathering process is continuous. Types of Weathering Physical weathering Chemical weathering Biological weathering   Agents of Weathering  Physical Agents of Weathering Include wind, water, moving ice and temperature. Wind – carry materials which hit against each other to break into fragments. Water – intensity of rainfall causes breakdown of rock. Moving ice – has grinding effects which tear off rock particles. Extreme temperature cause rocks to expand and contract suddenly peeling off their surface. Chemical Weathering

Definition of Agriculture    Agriculture is the science and art of cultivation of crops and rearing of livestock. As a science, it involves experimentation and application of scientific knowledge in such areas as; Soil analysis, Control of pests and diseases, Farm machinery and structures, Crop and livestock breeding. As an art, it involves the use of learned skills in; Tilling the land, Construction, Measurement, Harvesting of crops, Feeding and handling of livestock Branches of Agriculture Crop Farming (Arable Farming) The practice of growing crops on cultivated land.       It is subdivided into: Field crops Cultivation: maize, beans, potatoes, coffee, tea, cotton to name but a few. Horticulture: It involves the growing of perishable crops which have high value. It is further subdivided into: Floriculture – the growing of flowers. Olericulture – the growing of vegetables. Pomoculture – the growing of fruits.   Livestock Farming This branch deals with the rearing of livestock for various products. It is further subdivided into: Pastoralism: This is the rearing of mammalian livestock such as cattle, sheep, goats, rabbits, pigs and camels. Fish Farming (Aquaculture): This is the practice of rearing fish and other aquatic organisms , in ponds. Bee Keeping (Apiculture): This involves the rearing of bees in structures known as beehives. Poultry Keeping: This is the keeping of domesticated birds.   Agricultural Economics It deals with the allocation of scarce resources (land, labour, capital and management) for agricultural production. Agricultural Engineering This branch of agriculture deals with the use and maintenance of farm tools, machinery and structures.   Farming Systems A farming system is the organization of the various enterprises in a farm.   It is determined by the following factors: Resources available (land, labour, capital and management). Skills of the farmer. Environmental factors such as climate, soil type and topography. Government policy. Farmer’s choice and preference. Enterprise requirement. Social-cultural factors. The following are systems of farming: Extensive System: It is a system where a large piece of land with low investment of resources per unit area is carried out. Advantages  It is cheap.  Does not require high level of management. Requires less labour. Disadvantages Low profit per unit area. Cannot be practiced where land is limited. Low output per unit area.  The land is under-utilized, Intensive Farming: This system utilizes the factors of production to the maximum and involves high level of management. Advantages Maximum utilization of the resources. Can be practiced even where land is a limiting factor. Results in high yields. Disadvantages Labour intensive. High capital investment is required. Requires high level of management. Can lead to high loses in case of poor management.   Large Scale Farming Refers to the farming practice under large areas of land over 20 hectares. It is used mainly for commercial purposes. The system is highly mechanized. Advantages Results in high yields. Due to economics of scale high profit is realized. Disadvantages Lack of diversification may lead to total failure in case of unfavorable conditions. High level of management is required. Heavy capital investment. Requires skilled and qualified manpower. Small Scale Farming Refers to farming carried out on a small area of land less than 5 hectares. Family or casual labour can be engaged during the peak periods. Most of the Kenyan farmers are small scale due to unavailability of farmland. Advantages Requires low capital investment. Possible where land is a limiting factor. Does not require high management level unless under intensive system. Disadvantages Uneconomical 10 mechanize due to small size. Low production. Provides limited employment. Labour intensive. Difficult to specialize. Methods of Farming A method of farming is an established way of carrying out farming activities. The following are the common methods of farming: Mixed Farming It is the practice of growing crops and keeping of livestock on the same land. Its common in high potential areas. Advantages Mutual benefit between crops and livestock. Crops supply feed for animals while animals supply manure for crops. Acts as an insurance against total loss by the farmer. The farmer is assured of an income throughout the year. There is maximum utilization of the resources. Animals can be used in the farm activities particularly draught animals. Ensures proper utilization of labour and land throughout the year.       Disadvantages High initial capital. Lack of specialization. Land can be a limiting factor if both enterprises are to be raised. Requires high level of management for both enterprises.   Nomadic-Pastoralism This is the practice of livestock rearing whereby animals are moved from one place to another in search of water and pastures. It is practiced in the arid and semi-arid areas where in most cases beef animals are kept.      Nomadic pastoralism is gradually changing to ranching with the introduction of: Improved pasture species, improved livestock breeds and supplementary feeding. Efficient disease and parasite control measures. Improved infra-structure such as roads, water supply, cattle dipping facilities. Extension services.      Advantages Serves as the backbone of beef industry in Kenya. Proper way of utilizing the arid and semi arid areas. Source of income to the pastoral communities.     Disadvantages It encourages the spread of livestock pests and diseases due to communal watering points, grazing and dipping facilities. There is a tendency to increased soil erosion and land degradation. Source of conflicts and ethnic tension among the nomadic communities for the control of good pastures and water. Difficult to control breeding and breeding diseases. High rate of inbreeding leading to poor quality livestock. Low production of milk, meat, hides and skins due to wastage of energy in traveling from one place to another in search of pastures and water. High death rates as a result of walking for long distances.   Shifting Cultivation It is a traditional method of cultivating a piece of land until the soil is exhausted and crop yields decline. The land is abandoned and the farmer shifts to a new field as the previous land is left fallow to regain its fertility.      Advantages Land is allowed to rest and regain its fertility. No build up