December 11, 2022

Introduction Soil and water are two very important natural resources in farming. They should therefore be well maintained and used without wastage to sustain continuous production. Water loss during the rainy season should be prevented and excess water conserved for use during scarcity. Soil erosion must be controlled at whatever cost if soil is to be conserved. Soil Erosion It is the removal and carrying away of the top soil by the action of water or wind. Factors Influencing Soil Erosion Amount and intensity of rainfall. The steeper the land the higher the velocity of surface runof The higher the velocity of surface runoff the greater is its erosive power/effect. Type of soil for example sandy soils are more easily detached and carried away than clayey soil Soil depth; The deeper the soil, the longer it takes to be saturated with Land use: Overstocking leads to bareness of the land and looseness of the soil. Deforestation – indiscriminate removal of trees leads to exposure of soil to heavy rainfall and high te Indiscriminate burning of vegetation exposes the soil to erosive agents. Clean weeding leaves the soil bare. Ploughing along the slope. Monoculture or continuous cultivation. Ground cover Trees act as windbreakers. Roots of vegetation cover hold the soil particles together. Leaf fall act as mulch which reduces erosion. Leaves of vegetation cover intercepts raindrops reducing their erosive power. Agents of Erosion Water – moving water has erosive power. Wind – wind carries away soil. Human beings – through man’s activities such as cultivation and mining. Animals – through overgrazing and creating footpaths where soil erosion takes place. Types of Erosion Raindrop (splash) – displacement of the soil caused by raindrops. Sheet – uniform removal of soil in thin layers from flat or gently sloping areas. Rill – removal of soil from small bur well defined channels or rills. Gulley – removal of soil from channels which become progressively deeper and wide Riverbank Erosion – removal of soil along river banks by the river water. Solifluction – gravitational flow of soil saturated with wa Land slides – mass movement of rock debris and soil down a slope, For example; Slip movement of earth or rock masses for a short distance. Debris slide – materials move at a greater speed. Debris fall – movement of materials/debris along vertical cliff. Rock fall – movement of rock down a very steep slope. Rock slides – mass of rock materials that slide along a bedding plate, a joint or a fault face. Soil Erosion Control Measures Soil conservation measures can be classified into: Biological or cultural control Physical or structural control Biological or Cultural Control Measures These measures are applicable where land slope is between 2-12%. Grass strips/filter strips; These are narrow uncultivated strips along the contour left between cultivated strips. Cover cropping ; The establishment of a crop that spreads out over the surface of the soil to provide it with a cover. Contour farming ; Carrying out all land operations along the contour. Mulching ; Covering of the soil with either organic or synthetic materials. Proper cropping systems such as: Crop rotation Correct spacing Inter-cropping Ridging/furrowing Strip cropping Controlled grazing; Proper stocking rate, rotational grazing. Strip cropping; Growing crops which give little ground cover in alternate strips with crops such as beans which have a good ground cover. Afforestation/re-afforestation. Afforestation – growing of trees where non-existed. Re-afforestation – growing of trees where they have been cut down. Agroforestry – land use that involves the growing of trees in combination with crops and pastures on the same piece of land. Physical or Structural Control Measures These are soil and water conservation measures which involve mechanical constructions on the earth. They are used in areas of moderate slope between 13-55%. They include: Trash or stone lines; These are rows of heaped crop’ residues or stones made along the Filter strips; It involves the growing of an open crop in the upper side of the slope followed by a dense crop to reduce speed of wate This increases infiltration. Terraces; Are structures constructed across a slope to reduce the length of a slope thus reducing run-off. Bench terraces; Are constructed where the slope is 35-55%. Tree crops are suitable for such areas. Importance of a Bench Terrace: –       Reduces slope of the land. Conserves soil moisture. Better retention of soil fertility. Narrow based terraces –Cannot allow cultivation by machines. Broad based terraces – Is wide enough to allow cultivation by machines. Graded terraces: Have a drainage channel to lead off excess water to a vegetated place They should be about 100m in length. Level terraces: Have no outlet channels, The aim is to have water infiltrating, Hence no water can flow from the ends of the terrain Fanya juu: A ridge made by digging a channel and throwing the soil uphill. Fanya chini: In this case the soil is heaped on the lower side of the channel. Bunds: heaps of soil (earth) made along the contour. Cutoff drains: An open trench with an embankment on the lower side into which water from the farm dra Water from the trench should be discharged into; Natural waterways, Artificial waterways, Rocky ground Grassland Gabion/Porous dams: Galvanized wire mesh boxes filled with stones which are built across slopes and gullie Dams and reservoirs ; Dams – barriers built across a river/waterway to hold and store water. It reduces speed of runoff. Reservoirs – these are large storage ta Ridging – heaps of soil to reduce the speed of water, They retain the water for some time.   Water Harvesting Methods Water harvesting and storage should be done during the rainy seasons to avoid wastage. This should be done using the following methods: Roof catchment – trapping and collection of rain water from roof tops. Rock catchment – water is harvested by constructing a barrier on the lower side of a large impervious rock to trap surface runoff from the rock. Weirs and dams. Dam – a barrier constructed

Introduction Land is an important factor of production. Without land it is impossible to practice the agricultural business. However the efficiency of utilization of land is influenced to a large extent by the condition of holding the land. Land Tenure Land tenure is defined as the possession of the legal rights to the use of land. Various kinds of rights to the use of land give rise to different tenure systems. Land Tenure System All land tenure systems fall into two major classes, namely: Collective Tenure Systems This includes:  Communal Tenure Systems This involves the possession of rights over land by the whole community. It works quite well under conditions of unlimited, land res  Advantages of Communal Tenure Landless problem does not exist. Land is not fragmented. Allows for free movement of animals in search of better pastures and water. Promotes community spirit among the members. Disadvantages of Communal Tenure No incentive among the users to conserve the land resources. Everybody strives to maximize returns from the land without the drive to invest, for example, in terms of soil conservation and maintenance of soil fertility. There is a tendency of overstocking and continuous cropping; which leads to soil erosion and loss of land productivity. As a result of communal grazing of livestock, it is impossible to improve livestock through; controlled breeding, proper feeding, disease and parasite control. Since there is no title deed, (certificate of ownership) it is virtually impossible to secure loans to develop the land. Co-operative Tenure System This category includes various collective arrangements under the government or other authorities. Farmers voluntarily group together and buy land which they subsequently operate on co-operative basis. Examples are co-operative ranches.  Advantages of Co-operative Tenure No land disputes. Labour is well utilized. Profit is distributed according to the number of shares. Resource use is enhanced for high production.   Disadvantages of co-operative tenure. Incase of poor management everybody will loose. No individual title deed hence cannot secure loans.  State ownership Land is owned by the whole state and is refered to as government land. Examples in Kenya; Areas not allocated to individuals Land under local county councils/cities and towns Land under forest, game reserve and parks, land for infra-structure and public utility Advantages of state ownership Generation of income for the state All the citizens benefit from whatever comes out of the land. Disadvantages Non-competitive in terms of production No individual motivation when working on the land. Individual Tenure system The various forms of individual land tenure are; Owner operator, Plantation and Concestion, Land-lordism/Tenancy   Owner operator This category includes all persons who operate on land to which they have absolute individual rights. Examples are the majority of individual land owners in areas where demarcation and registration of land has taken place and title deeds issued. Advantages The owner is free to make permanent production plans. The owner can pledge the land title deed to secure loans(credit) from lending agencies for further development An individual is motivated to work harder than when under communal arrangement Managerial failures usually affect small units of production and are therefore negligible. It is easy for the owner to get agricultural advice. Disadvantages Cost such as machinery for processing may be too high for the individual owner Innovation may be inadequate due to low levels of education. Lack of capital to invest. Plantation and concession In this form of land tenure, the individual is usually a company or a corporation. Most of them engage in the production of only one commodity They are rigid in their production plans and in most cases labour is hired on wage basis. Example are coffee, tea, sugarcane, sisal estates in Kenya. Advantages High production from the land hence high economic gains Allows foreigners to use and develop land No land disputes Create employment for the local people Generate government revenue through taxation. Disadvantages Individuals own large pieces of land while others are landless Large areas of land may be left underdeveloped. Foreigners may repatriate profit to their countries. Landlordism and tenancy The arrangement here involves the ownership of land by one individual or group of individuals (landlord) who lease it to another individual (tenant). A legal lease specifies the length of time during which the tenure is operative; and that serves as a security of tenure to the tenant. The efficiency of production in this arrangement is greatly affected by the length of lease, its legal backing and rent payable. Advantages A person without land can get a chance to use land. A landlord who cannot operate the land, for any reason, can still earn income by leasing it to a needy tenant. It is a flexible arrangement; that is, it allows room for change of production plans should need arise. Security of tenure gives the tenant incentive to invest depending on the length of tenure. Disadvantages Poor land use and low production if the tenant does not have enough funds to improve on land. Tenants cannot produce long term crops, Landlords can exploit the tenants by overcharging. Lack of incentives to improve land by the tenants since it does not belong to them. Land Reforms Definition Land reform is any organized action designed to improve the structure of land tenure and land use. Forms of Land Reform Land Consolidation This means bringing or putting together, into one piece; fragmented parcels or pieces of land scattered over a large area. The objective of land consolidation are : To save on time spent while moving from one piece of land to another. To facilitate effective and efficient farm planning. To create an incentive among land operators to invest on and develop land. To facilitate mechanization and improve production through efficiency. To improve level of production through effective supervision of the labour force and sound farming methods, Land Fragmentation and Sub-division This is the subdividing of a (large) piece of land into smaller portions. Sometimes it becomes necessary to sub-divide land for the following reasons: To sell part of the land.

Introduction Farm structures are physical constructions on the farm used to increase efficiency in production. Construction of Farm Structures  Involves: Planning for farm structures ; Consider; Farm activities. Size of the enterprise. Future of the enterprise. Accessibility. Soil type. Siting farm structures; Consider: The location of the homestead. Accessibility. Security. Drainage/topography. Wind direction. Relationship between the structures. Proximity to social amenities. Farmer’s taste and preference.   Materials for Construction        Structural Materials and Use Factors which determine the type of materials to use are; durability, strength, labour, availability, workability, serviceability, cost Stones and Bricks  Advantages Stones and bricks are durable, easy to disinfect, resistant to weather and insects decay and are easily available.         Disadvantages They are bulky and require skilled labour to make them. Plastic and Synthetic Materials These include; glass, asbestos fibre polythene materials. Advantages Light, cheep depending on quality, easy to disinfect, can be moulded into any shape, are durable, cannot be destroyed by insects and fungus are water-proof. Disadvantages Are easily destroyed, fragile, very expensive require skilled labour. Wood (Timber) Advantages They are workable, cheap, can be re-used are fairly strong. Disadvantages They can catch fire easily, decay if exposed to water are affected by fungus and insects.   Concrete Is a mixture of cement, sand, aggregate and water e.g. in making blocks the ratio is 1:2:3; one part cement, two parts sand and three parts aggregate.  Uses Making posts for fencing. Making walls and floor of buildings. Making gabions and water channels to prevent erosion. Making water troughs.   Advantages These materials are; durable, workable, easy to disinfect, cheap to maintain, fire resistant Disadvantages These materials are ; expensive, require skilled labour, bulky, cannot be reused   Animal handling structures The crush –used when doing following activities; Spraying livestock to control ticks, milking, examining sick animals, artificial insemination, treating animals, eg drenching, vaccination, dong routine jobs such as dehorning, identification marks, The spray race-used in the control of ticks by spraying livestock with acaricides The dip- machakos type, and the pludge dip. This is used in the control of ticks by dipping livestock   Farm Buildings Factors to be considered in site selection; Security Nearness to a source of water Topography Direction of the prevailing wind Direction of the sun Personal whims/tastes and preference Nearness to means of communication. Types of farm buildings Houses for farm animals. Stores for farm produce. Stores for equipment, tools and supplies. Buildings for growing crops e.g  green house. Building for processing plant e.g  milk plant. Parts of a building The foundation, The walls, The roof Include; kingpost, rafters, struts, tie beam, rafter batten Include; concrete floor, foundation wall, PVC sheet (damp-proof course) the compacted fill (hard core). Fences Importance of Fence in a Farm Keep out intruders to the farm, Define the boundary lines of the farm. Paddocking of fields to make rotational grazing possible. Live fences serve as windbreaks. Fences are used in mixed farming to protect crops from. damage by livestock. Fences add aesthetic values to the farm. It is easy to control breeding. It is easy to isolate sick animals from the rest of the herd. Types of Fences Dead fences. Barbed wire fences. Electric fence. Concrete fence. Chicken wire fence (mesh wire fence). Woven wire fence (chain link). Wooden fence. Fencing Practice Materials include; wires, staples, nails, posts, droppers concrete materials. Size of posts: General purpose 2.5m by 25cm in diameter Strainer units and corner posts 3m by 30cm in diameter: Distance between the posts: 3m between posts, 10m if droppers are to be used. 200m between strainer units. Depth of holes – 60cm. Gate Posts, Gates and Strainer Units Gates should be hung on posts separate from the fence. Mechanical implements for example tractors require 4.0-4.5m width of gate. Entrance gates for pedestrians can be accommodated within the fence.  Steps in Fencing Locate the corners Clear the fencing area. Mark gates, strainers, pass places and standards by pegging. Dig holes to proper depths. Fix the standard posts. Firm around posts or apply concrete. Fix wires on posts. Fix the droppers.

Introduction In the management of livestock there are many activities that are carried out on animals to enhance production. They require care in feeding, health, breeding. Specific management also important in bee and fish farming. Routing livestock rearing practices. A routine is a fixed/regular way of doing something. done repeatedly after a certain period of time Feeding Practice Animals are fed to cater for both maintenance and production requirements. These are special types of feeding carried out on certain animals to cater for specific needs. These include: Flushing The practice of giving extra quality feed to an animal around service time. In sheep it is done 2-3 weeks before tupping and 3 weeks after tupping. In pigs it is done 3-4 weeks before service. Importance of Flushing It increases conception rates. It enhances implantation of the zy In sheep it increases twinning percentage by 15-20%. Steaming Up Giving extra quality feed to an animal during the last weeks of gestation. In cattle it is done 6-8 weeks before calving. Importance Steaming Up It provides nutrients for maximum foetal growth. It helps in the build up of energy for parturition. It ensures the birth of a healthy animal. It promotes good health of the mother. It increases and maintains high milk yield after birth. Creep Feeding Feeding of young animals from birth to weaning. Piglets 10 days old – introduced to creep pellets. 5 weeks old – creep pellets mixed with sow and weaner meals. 8 weeks old – weaning. Lambs Run with their mothers for natural suckling. Bucks – introduced to succulent feeds and concentrates. Kids Meat goats kids suckle naturally. Dairy goats, fed on milk artificially, Given 0.5-1.25 litres up to the third week. Introduced to concentrates at 3-4 months. Weaned at 6-8 weeks of age. Parasite and Disease Control Practices   Vaccination Introducing active disease organsms which are reduced in strength or virulent into the animals’ body to induce immunity. Administration of Vaccination done through: By injection. Orally through the mouth. By inhalation through the nose. Eye drops. Deworming Practice of killing/removing internal parasites by administering drugs known as dewormers / antihelmitics. Hoof Trimming Cutting back overgrown hooves with the help of a hoof trimming knife, a hoof cutter or a hoof rasp.      Importance Facilitate easy movement. Control of foot rot disease. Facilitate mating – prevent the ram from injuring the ewe during tupping.   Docking /tailing This is the removal (cutting oft) of tails in sheep during the first week after birth. Importance Even distribution of body fat. Facilitate easy mating in adult life. Minimise fouling of the wool with faeces. Reduce incidences of blowfly infestation.      Methods of Docking /tailing Cutting with sharp knife or scalpel.  Use of elastrator and rubber ring. Dipping and Spraying These are methods of applying acaricides on the animals to control external parasites. Dusting It is the application of chemical powders on the animal body or on the walls of the animal house to control external parasites. It is used to control stick-fast parasites and fleas in poultry.   Breeding Practices These are practices carried out to enhance successful breeding. Crutching and Ringing Crutching – cutting of wool around the external reproductive organs of female sheep. Ringing – trimming wool around the sheath of the penis of the rams to facilitate mating. Tupping and Serving Tupping refers to mating in sheep and goats. Serving refers to mating in cattle and pigs. Raddling This is the practice of fitting the rams with breeding chutes which are painted in different colours during mating to identify mated ewes and to indicate the active rams hence help in culling of the weak rams.   Identification The practice of putting identification marks on animal. Branding – burning marks on the animals skin. Ear tagging – placing marked plastic or metallic tags on the animals ears. Ear notching – cutting different shapes bearing different values on the ear lobes. Tattooing – use of permanent ink or dye to mark animals with light skin. Neck strap or chain – Fixing of tags round the animals neck with a chain or a strap. Importance/ purpose of Identification record keeping Setting disputes in case animals get mixed up in the pasture.   Debeaking Cutting about 1/3 of the upper beak with a knife, scissors or hot iron.  Importance Control egg eating. Control cannibalism. Tooth Clipping The removal (clipping) of the needle (canine) teeth in piglets 24 hours after birth. Culling Removal of undesirable animals from a herd. Dehorning Removal of horns or horn buds from an animal.        Importance It prevents animals from injuring each other. It makes the animal docile and therefore easy to han For easy transportation and feeding. Prevents destruction of farm structures. Shearing The practice of cutting wool from all over the body of a sheep. It starts at the age of 8 months and then done once a year. Should be done during the dry season. Tools used: wool shears. Care must be taken not to cut the skin, testicles, udder, vulva and penis. Castration It is the rendering unserviceable the testicles of a male animal.     Importance To control breeding diseases. To control breeding. For faster growth rates. Increase quality of meat by removing unpleasant smell especially in goats. Methods Used: Closed/bloodless method involves use of burdizzo or rubber ring and ela Animals do not bleed but may not be 100% effecti Open method A surgical method used for castrating cocks, piglets and rabbits whose testes are internal. Also used for lambs, kids and calves. Animals bleed a lot. However, it is 100% effective. It is not recommended for mature adults. Caponisation It is the practice of making male birds lose their male characteristics by use of hormones. Hormones used include stilboestrol which is injected into the birds when they are one day old and female hormones implanted beneath the skin at the neck. Birds which have lost their male characteristics in this way are referred to as capons. Management During

Introduction The breeding of animals is under human control, and the breeders decide which individuals shall produce the next generation. The breeder makes a choice. The breeding of animals is based upon the fact that certain qualities are genetic ,hence valuable qualities are passed on from parents to off -springs. The qualities can be maintained or improved in the next generation.  The performance of an animal is influenced by two major factors;  Genetic potential The environment, which includes: Feeding, Health, Care The ecological conditions. The genetic potential of an animal is inherited from its parents. In selection and breeding animals with superior characteristics are selected and allowed to mate. In the process they transmit the superior characteristics to their offspring. When this is done over a long period of time, it results in livestock improvement.   Reproduction and Reproductive Systems Reproduction is the process by which off-springs are produced. All farm animals multiply by means of sexual reproduction. It begins with fertilization which is the fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote. Fertilization takes place internally in the body of the female. The embryo(zygote) formed develops inside body of mother, fed and protected until end of gestation period. In poultry, the process is different in that eggs are fertilized internally but laid and development of the chick takes place outside during incubation. In both male and female, certain organs are specialized for the process of reproduction. Some of these organs secret fluids which are necessary for the movement and survival of the gametes(reproductive cells.) Reproduction in Cattle The male reproductive organs produce the male gametes,the spermatozoans. These are introduced into female reproductive system, where they fuse with the sperm to form zygote. The testis: There are two testes hanging loosely between hind legs. Enclosed by loose skin (scrotum)scrotum regulate temperature of testis for optimum production of sperms. Produce spermatozoa(sperms)which are stored in coiled tube called epididymis. Epididymis: Storage of spermatozoa. Sperm ducts: Conveys sperm from the testis and urine through the penis. sphincter muscles contract to allow each to pass separetly. Seminal vesicles produce fluid called semem. semen carries sperms out of penis in fluid form. Prostate gland -produce fluid that neutralize the acidic effects of urine in the urethra preventing death of sperms. Accessory glands: Include seminal vesicles cowpers gland and prostate gland. Urethra: Conveys urine and semen. Penis: Surrounded by a sheath which is an extension of skin. It introduces sperms into the vagina of a cow through the vulva during mating. It is a copulatory organ, also used for urination. Ovaries and fallopian tubes(oviduct) Two ovaries located in abdomen, left and right. Produce ova/eggs and hormones which control sexual cycle. Oestrogen produced by graafian follicle inside ovary induces oestrus ie. Heat period so that the cow shows signs of heat After every 21 days the ovary releases a mature ovum and the cow comes on heat. The ovum travels through the fallopian tubes to the uterus. The release and movement of the ovum down to the uterus is called ovulation. If mating is done at this time, fertilization will take place. The fertilized egg implants itself onto the endometrium(walls of uterus)and  develops into foetus.  Fallopian tubes: Fertilization takes place here. Also a passage for the egg from the ovary to the uterus. The uterus: Embryo develops h The cervix: Closes the uterus. The vagina and Vulva: Vulva is the external opening of female reproductive system. It allows mating to take place so that sperms are deposited into the vagina. The foetus and urine are removed through the vulva. Pregnancy Is period between fertilization of ova and the expulsion of the foetus through the vulva. Also called gestation period. In cattle gestation period is 270-285 days. Ends with the birth of a calf. The reproductive tract undergoes a period of rest during which it is repaired and returns to normal. During pregnancy, hormone called progesterone is produced by the placenta to maintain the foetus in the uterus.  Parturition(giving birth) Act of giving birth called parturition. This time the foetus expelled through the birth canal.  When an animal is about to give birth, it shows signs;- Distended udder which produces thick milky fluid called colostrums. Swollen vulva producing thick mucus. Loose and slackened pelvic girdle. Visible pin bones. General restlessness. Animal parturates within 2-3 hours after this signs. The correct presentation is with the front feet first ,and the head outstretched and resting in between the fee. Any other presentation called mal-presentation or breech presentation and requires assistance. Reproduction in Poultry The cock has no penis but a small opening near the vent through which sperms are emitted. Cock has testes within the body. The hen has elongated oviduct for formation of an egg. Fertilization occurs internally. During mating the cloaca of the hen and the vent of the cock fit into each other and then semen is poured into the cloaca ,then  sucked to the oviducts.  The Reproductive System of a Hen Ovary Hen has two ovaries but one functional. Ova formed in ovaries. 3500-4000 ova present inside ovary held by follicle. Mature ovum released via rapture of follicle. It moves into oviduct received by the funnel.  Funnel(infundibulum) Fertilization occurs here. Chalazae also added to yolk. Time here is 15 minutes. It is 11.6cm long. Magnum Thick albumen is added. Stays for 3hrs.its 33cm long.   Isthmus Its 10.6cm long. Shell membranes added. Determines shape of egg. Water, mineral salts and vitamins added. Takes 15 minutes. Uterus(shell gland) Calcium deposited 9ie.shell added around the egg. Pigments added. Addition of albumin finished. Stays here for 18-22hours. Vagina Short, 6.9cm long. For temporal storage of egg before laying Cloaca Egg moves out of cloaca through the vent. The cloaca extents out to prevent the egg from breaking. NB; Egg formation not depended on fertilization. Egg formation takes 24-26hours. The components of egg are obtained from body reserves of the hens body. Selection of a Breeding Stock Selection is used as a tool for livestock improvement. A breeding

TOPIC 1 : LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION III ( SELECTING AND BREEDING ) – Click to view TOPIC 2 : LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION IV ( LIVESTOCK REARING ) – Click to view TOPIC 3 : FARM STRUCTURES – Click to view TOPIC 4 : AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS II ( LAND TENURE AND LAND REFORM ) – Click to view TOPIC 5 : SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION – Click to view TOPIC 6 : WEEDS AND WEED CONTROL – Click to view TOPIC 7 : CROP PESTS AND DISEASES – Click to view TOPIC 8 : CROP PRODUCTIVITY VI ( FIELD PRACTICES II ) – Click to view TOPIC 9 : FORAGE CROPS – Click to view TOPIC 10 : LIVESTOCK HEALTH III ( DISEASES ) – Click to view

Introduction Animals are fed for the purpose of production and body maintenance. The edible material given to animals is called food. It is digested, absorbed and· utilized in the body. Nutrients are organic and inorganic substances contained in the food materials. Components of Food material water, protein, carbohydrates, fats and oils, vitamins mineral salts. Water Sources Free water (through drinking) Bound water (contained in feeds). Metabolic water (obtained from oxidation of food). Functions Regulates body temperature. Transport agent in the body.  Universal solvent in the body. Gives shape to the cells (turgidity). Acts as a lubricant. Acts as constituent of body fluids. Factors Determining the Requirements of Water by Livestock Production level. Amount of dry matter eaten. Temperature of the surrounding area. Type of animal. Type of food eaten. Protein Sources: Groundnut cakes, cotton seed cakes, fish meal, meat meal. Functions: Growth of new tissues. Repair of worn out tissues (body building). Synthesis of antibodies. Synthesis of hormones and enzymes. Production of energy during starvation. Digestion of Proteins In non-ruminants, protein digestion takes placed in the stomach. Food is subjected to mechanical breakdown through chewing into small particles. Protein is acted on by enzymes to turn into amino acid which is assimilated into the bloodstream. In ruminants, protein digestion initially takes place in the rumen. Food is acted on by micro-organisms into microbial protein. Later, enzymatic action takes place in the “true stomach” or abomasum where proteins are broken down into amino acids which are then assimilated into the bloodstream. Carbohydrates Sources: Cereals, tubers commercially mixed feeds. Functions: Supply energy and heat to the body. Excess is stored in form of fat for insulation of the body. Digestion of Carbohydrates In non-ruminants; carbohydrate feeds are broken down by chewing into small particles. Then enzymatic action further breaks down carbohydrates into glucose, fructose and galactose which are then assimilated into the bloodstrea In ruminants; mechanical breakdown of carbohydrate feeds is followed by microbial activities which break down cellulose into volatile fatty acids. These are absorbed through the rumen walls. Some carbohydrates are broken down by enzymatic action in the “true stomach” or abomasum. Fats and Oils Sources: Cotton seeds, soya beans groundnuts. Functions: Supply energy and heat to the body. Excess is stored as fat adipose tissues. Source of metabolic water in the body. Required for the development of neural system. Insulator in the body. Digestion  of lipids in Ruminants Fats are hydrolysed in the rumen into fatty acids and glycerol. Others are fermented into propionic acid, The shorter chains are passed to the true stomach where enzymatic action takes place. Vitamins Sources: Green materials, dried grass fish liver oil. Functions: Protects the body against diseases. Regulate the functions of all parts of the body. It acts as a co-enzyme in the body. Examples: Vitamin A, vitamin B2 vitamin C, vitamin E vitamin K.  Minerals Sources: Salt licks, bone meal, legumes cerea Functions: Form part of the tissues such as bones and teeth. Work together with the enzymes.  Act as acid -base balances. Act as electrolyte in the body. Regulate osmotic balance in the body. Examples: Calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, iodine, sodium chlorine. Calcium and phosphorus – Needed for teeth and bone formation. Lack of these minerals leads to rickets, osteomalacia. Lack of iron leads to anaemia. Classification of Animal Feeds This is based on nutrient composition: Roughages. Concentrates. Feed additives. Roughages Are feeds of low available nutrients per unit weight and high fibre content.      Examples: Dry roughages, succulent roughages, residues from agricultural by products and conserved materials. Characteristics Low level of available nutrients. Have high level of calcium especially legumes. Good source of vitamin A. Have high fibre content. Concentrates Are feeds of high available nutrients per unit weight.       Examples: Maize germ and bran, malt extract, milk products, soyabeans, oil seed cakes, meat meal, bonemeal bloodmeal. Characteristics Low fibre content. Feed content is consistently high. High digestibility of the feed. High in nutrient content. Feed Additives     These are substances added to the feed to increase; palatability, medication or hormones to make animals produce more. There are two types: Nutritive additives, such as mineral licks (maclick). Non-nutritives additives, such as; medicants (coccidiostats), Stilboestrol (used in beef animals) oxytocin (to increase milk let down). Functions Stimulate growth and production.  Improve feed efficiency. Prevent disease causing organisms. Compounded Feeds These are the feeds prepared and mixed by use of machines. These feeds can be round, pelleted, pencils, cubes or mash. Poultry feeds can be categorized as: Chick mash having 20% D.C. given to chicks. Growers mash having 16% D.C. given to growers. Layers mash having 12-15% D.C.P. given to layers. Meaning of terms used to express feed values Nutritive ratio (NR): Is the proportion of protein to carbohydrates and fats. In young animals 1:3:6 In old animals 1:8. Crude protein (C.P): Is the total amount of protein contained in a feed. Digestible Crude Protein (D.C.P): Is the portion of crude protein which an animal is capable of digesting. Crude Fibre (C.F.): Is the total amount of fibre contained in a feed. It is mainly lignin and cellulose. Digestible Fibre (D.F.): Is the portion of the total fibre contained in a feed which an animal is capable of digesting. Dry Matter (D.M.): Is the material left in a feed after water has been removed. Starch equivalent (S.E.): Is the amount of pure starch which has the same energy as 100kg of that feed. Total Digestible Nutrients (T.D.N.): Is the sum of all the digestible organic nutrients such as fats, proteins, carbohydrates and fibre. Computation of Livestock Rations Ration: Is the amount of food that will provide essential nutrients to an animal in a 24 hour period to enable that animal to meet its maintenance and production requirements. Balanced ration: Is the ration that contains all the essential nutrients in required amounts and in the right proportion. Maintenance ration: is the portion of a feed required by an animal to continue with the vital body processes with no loss or gain

Introduction A parasite is an organism which obtains its livelihood from another organism (host) which suffers damage. Parasitism is the association between a parasite and a host. The effects of parasite on the host animal are: Depriving the host of its food. Sucking blood. Damaging the organs of the host. Cause irritation on the skin of the host. Destruction of hides and skins. Transmission of diseases. Cause obstruction in body passages. General Symptoms of Parasites Infestation: Ema Pot bellied condition. Swellings in the jaw or other areas. Rough hair or rough coat. Anaemia. Diarrhoea. Presence of worm segments and blood stains in the defecat Types of Parasites There are two types of parasites: External (ecto-parasites) Internal (endo-parasites) External parasites are; ticks, tsetse flies, mites, lice, fleas keds Life Cycle of ticks Eggs are laid in cracks on the group They hatch in 4-6 weeks into larvae which climb on the grass waiting for a passing animal.  One–Host Tick This requires one host to complete its life cycle. Example: blue tick (Boophilus decoloratus). Preferred sites: face, neck, dewlap and side of the body. Disease transmitted: Redwater and anapl Two-Host Tick This requires two different hosts to complete its life cycl Example: The red legged tick (Rhipicephalus everts) Preferred sites: Ears, anus, udder and the tail. Disease transmitted: Redwater and east coast fever. Example: Bont legged tick (amblyomma spp.) Preferred sites: Udder, scrotum and tail switch. Disease transmitted: Sweating sickn  Three-Host Tick This requires three hosts to complete its life cycl Example: The brown ear tick (Rhipicephalus appendiculatus) Preferred sites: Ears, tail switch and around the eyes. Disease transmitted: East coast fever and redwater. Bont tick transmit heartwater (amblyomma spp.) Control of Ticks Dipping/spraying/hand dressing with acaricides. Rotational grazing. Ploughing the land to break the life cycle. Hand picking and killing. Fencing of the grazing fields to keep off other animals including wild game. Burning of grass to kill them in various stages. Endo-parasites (internal Parasites) Endoparasites are helminths.     They can be divided into: Platyhelminthes/flatworms which include; Trematodes (flukes) Cestodes (tapeworms). Nemato-helminthes/nematodes. E.g Roundworms.   General Symptoms of Helminthiasis Diarrhoea which foul the anal and tail region. Dullness. Anaemia. Big stomach (pot bellied condition). Presence of worm segments in faeces. Coughing. Trematodes (Liver Fluke) There are two species of flukes: Fasciola gigantica Fasciola hepatica. Fasciola hepatica  is more common. It is commonly found in the liver and bile duct of cattle, sheep and goats. Liver fluke is a problem in marshy and low lying wet areas. Life Cycle of the Liver Fluke Adult fluke in the liver of the primary host lays eggs. Eggs pass through the bile duct into the small intestines and are passed out in faeces onto the pasture. Under moist conditions, they hatch into a miracidium larva which swims about in search of a secondary host (fresh water snails). In the snail, it develops through sporocyst, redia and cercaria. When it leaves the snail, the cercaria gets encysted on vegetation and becomes metacercari This is swallowed by the primary host with grass. The young fluke migrates into the liver through blood vessels when it matures. Control of Liver Fluke Keep livestock off marshy areas near the rivers/streams/lakes and dams. Drench affected animals. Drainage of swampy areas. Eradicate the intermediate host by use of molluscicides. Provide water to livestock in elevated troughs. Tapeworms There are many species of tapeworms Eexample; Taenia solium Taenia saginata. The adults live in the small intestines of man (the primary host). The intermediate host of Taenia solium is pig . The intermediate host of Taenia saginata is cattle. Life Cycle of Tapeworm Adult tapeworms live in man’s intestines where it lays eggs. Eggs are passed out with faeces, Then they develop an outer covering known as onchosphere. The eggs are swallowed by intermediate host. The outer covering is digested and the young worm emerges. This bores into the blood vessels and is carried to specific muscles such as the tongue, heart, thigh muscles. It develops into an encysted form called bladder–worm. When the animal is killed and meat is eaten raw or in an inadequately cooked form, man gets infected by the bladder­-worm. In man, the bladder-worm evaginates and attaches itself onto the intestinal wall where it develops into an adult. Control of Tapeworms Meat should be well cooked before eating. Use of drugs in primary host. Meat inspection by meat inspectors/ veterinary officers. Use of pit latrines by man.  Nematodes (Roundworms) Common ones are; Ascaris suum (pig roundworms), Ascaris lumbricoides found in man and sheep Haemonchus contortus found in sheep, cattle and goats. Roundworms are common in warm areas especially in areas where the standards of hygiene and sanitation are low.      Nature of Damage Damage is done to the liver and lung tissues as they migrate in the body. Suck out blood. Deprive the host of food. Control of Roundworms Use of drugs. Rotational grazing. Use of proper stocking rates to avoid overgrazing. Practicing high standards of cleanliness and hygiene such as use of latrines.

Introduction Health is the state of the body in which all the organs and systems are normal and functioning normally. Disease is any deviation from the normal health of the animal.  Importance of Keeping Livestock Healthy: Healthy animals give high income due to low treatment The productive life span of a healthy animal is longer. High production. Healthy animals can multiply regularly. Healthy animals give high quality products for example eggs. Safety of consumers of livestock products. Predisposing Factors to Livestock Diseases These are conditions within or around the animal that make it easy for an animal to contract a disease.  They include: Animal factors such as; species, breed, age, sex colour of the animal. Environmental factors such as; chilling, being rained on, exposure to hot sun dampne Management factors such as; poor feeding, housing, handling hygiene, overcrowding .  Signs of ILL-Health in Livestock Abnormal behaviour for example separation from the rest of the herd and restle Abnormal posture for example limping and lameness. Alimentary canal disfunction such as blood stained faeces and abnormal defecation, diarrhoea and dysentery. Urination: high frequency or too low and having strange colour. Skin: rough with scaly skin, blisters on the skin and hair loss. Causes of Diseases Pathogenic causes ; viruses, rickettsia, bacteria, protozoa fungi. Physical causes; fractures, dislocation, sprains . Nutritional disorders for example milk fever. Chemical causes for example poisoning by agrochemicals. Categories of Diseases Notifiable diseases ; These are diseases which cause high economic losses. Any case should be reported to the Chiefs, D.O.s, veterinary officers or the police. Tick-borne diseases – Transmitted by ticks. Breeding diseases – Transmitted through mating. Nutritional diseases for example milk fever and bloat. Parasitic diseases for example ascariosis. General Methods of Disease Control Quarantine. Vaccination. Control of vectors by use of acaricides and rotational grazing. Disinfecting the equipment and buildings. Use of preventive drugs. Proper feeding of livestock. Culling of the animals which are carriers/slaughtering the affected animals. Use of artificial insemination to control breeding diseases. Proper selection and breeding of animals. Proper housing and hygiene, Isolating sick animals.  Appropriate Methods of Handling Livestock     Animals are handled for the following reasons: When inspecting the animal to ascertain any abnormality or signs of diseases. When administering any form of treatment such as drenching, injection and mastitis control. When spraying or hand dressing the animal with chemicals to control external parasites. When milking the animal. When performing some of the management practices such as dehorning, disbudding, castration, hoof trimming . When carrying out these activities animals should be restrained in a crush. Other methods of restraining animals include the use of; halters, ropes, bull ring lead stick.

Introduction A vegetable is any crop that is grown and eaten fresh. Vegetables are important both for nutritional and commercial reasons. They are categorized on the basis of the part used as food. Such parts include; Leaves, Stems, Roots, Fruits, Flowers, Pods Vegetables are grouped into the following categories: Leaf vegetables for example kales and cabbages. Root vegetables for example carrots, beets, radishes and turnips. Fruit vegetables for example French beans and okra. Stem vegetables for example asparagus, leeks and spring onions. Bulb vegetables for example bulbed onions and garlic.   Tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum) Tomatoes are fruit vegetables widely grown in Kenya. The ripe fruit may be eaten raw cooked or processed to make tomato sauces, juices and pastes.   Ecological Requirements Altitude: 0-2100m above sea level. Rainfall: 7S0-1300mm per annum. Soils: deep, fertile and well drained. Varieties Fresh market varieties: Money maker, Marglobe, hundred fold, Beef eater, Hot set, Super marmande Processing varieties: Kenya beauty, San -marzano, Roma, Heinz 13S0, Primabel, Rutgers hybrid Cal- J. Nursery Practices Choose a site which has not been grown Solanaceae crop in the last three years. Nursery beds are raised about 15cm above the ground level. Make drills of 20cm apart and 1cm deep drill and cover the seeds. Provide shade or mulch material. Water twice a day. Apply phosphatic fertilizers during planting. Seedbed Preparation The land should be dug deeply to control weeds.   Transplanting Seedlings are ready for transplanting when they are 10-15cmhigh after about one month. Holes are made at a spacing of 60cm x 90cm. Apply 20gm of DSP in the planting hole. Transplant with a ball of soil around the roots. Apply mulch around each seedling. Transplanting is normally in the evening or on a cloudy day. Field Maintenance Early control of weeds is necessary. Top dressing is done after crop establishes. Pruning and staking are done to train the plants to grow vertically. Pests Controls American Bollworm Nature of damage: boring holes on the fruits. Control: spraying insecticides. Tobacco White Fly Nature of damage: suck plant sap from the underside of the leaf, hence may transmit viral diseases. Control: Destroy infected plant and spray insecticides. Disease Control Late Blight Cause: Fungus Symptoms: dry patches on the leaves and fruits. Control: use of fungicides, crop rotation and destruction of affected materials. Blossom-end Rot Caused by; Too much nitrogen in early stages. Irregular or infrequent watering. Calcium deficiency. Control: Apply calcium ammonium nitrate and correction of the above problems. Harvesting For canning, fruits should be fully ripe. For fresh market, fruits should be partially ripe and packed in crates to avoid damage. The fruits should be graded according to; Size, Colour, Ripeness Freedom from blemishes.   Cabbage It is a leaf vegetable related to other brassica crops such as kales, cauliflower, Chinese cabbage and Brussels sprouts. Cabbage leaves may be eaten raw in salads, steamed, boiled or cooked in a variety of ways. The leaves can also be fed to livestock. Ecological Requirements Altitude: Those with small heads: 900-1500m above sea level Those with Large heads: 1800-2700m above sea level. Temperature: require cool condition. Rainfall: 750-2000mm per annum. Should be well distributed throughout the growing period. Soils: Deep, Fertile Well drained.  Varieties Early maturing: Brunswick, Sugar loaf, Early jersey, Copenhagen market, Chinese cabbage, Celery cabbage, Cafe splits kool Gloria, mukuki, Golden acre . Late maturing: Drumhead, Savoy, Perfection, Nursery Practices The beds should be raised, dimension 1 m wide and any convenient length (usually 2-3m in length). Make drills of 15-20cm apart. Sow seeds by drilling and cover to a depth of 1 cm. Provide shade or mulch material. Apply phosphatic fertilizers and mix thoroughly with soil during planting.  Water twice a day. Seedbed Preparation Cultivation should be done during the dry season so that all the weeds are killed. Dig holes at the spacing of 60cm x 60cm. Incorporate farm yard manure in the soil. Transplanting Water the seedlings before uprooting. Seedlings are ready for transplanting after one month that is when they are 1O-15cm in height. Select healthy and vigorous seedlings. Transplant the seedlings with balls of soil to prevent root damage. Plant to the same depth as they were in the nursery. Field Maintenance Apply fertilizers during planting and top dress later. Control weeds to reduce competition. Pest Control Diamond Black Moth Damage: Eats the underside of the leaf making windows or holes in the leaf. Control: Spray recommended insecticides. Cutworms Damage: Attacks the stem at the ground level causing he plant to fall. Control: Spray recommended insecticides. Disease Control Black Rot Cause: Bacteria Symptoms: Leaves turn yellow and rotting of the stem giving an offensive odour, Control: Closed season, crop rotation, use certified seeds and spray appropriate chemicals. Black Leg Cause: Fungus Symptoms: Brown to black spots on seedlings and dark canker on the stem. Control: crop rotation, destroy infected materials. Harvesting Cabbages are ready for harvesting 3-4 months after transplanting. The heads are cut when they are solid and compact. Harvested cabbages are sold immediately. Carrots (Daucus carota) It is a root vegetable grown in the cool areas of Kenya. It is commonly eaten raw in salads but can also be cooked.     Ecological Requirements Altitude: 0-2,900m above sea level. Rainfall: 750 – 1,000mm. Well distributed throughout the growing period. Soils: It requires deep, Fine tilth Well drained soils that are free from obstacles to allow for root expansion. Temperatures: it requires cool to warm temperatures as very high temperatures result in the production of pale and short roots. Varieties Fresh market varieties for example Chantenay and Nantes. Canning varieties for example Nantes Fodder varieties for example Oxhast. Land Preparation The field should be well dug to a depth of about 20cm. The soil clods should be broken to give a fine tilth before planting. Manure should not be applied as it induces forking which reduces the crop quality. Planting Carrots are planted directly into the main seedbed. Seeds are drilled into rows made 20-30cm apart. The seeds are then covered lightly and

Introduction Field practices are activities carried out on the field to facilitate proper growth and maximum yield of the various crops grown. They include the following: Crop Rotation Mulching R0uting field practices Crop protection Harvesting   Crop Rotation This is the growing of different types on the same piece of land in different seasons, in an orderly sequence. Importance of Crop Rotation Maximizes use of nutrients and moisture. Breaks the life cycle of pests and disease agents. Maintains good soil structure. Reduces soil erosion due to adequate soil cover. Controls weeds that are specific to certain crops e.g. striga on cereals Improves soil fertility when legumes are included in crop rotation. Factors Influencing Rotational Programme Growth habits and nutrient req uirements. Liability to soil erosion. Crops attacked by the same pests and diseases should not follow one another in the programme. Availability of capital and market for example beans or peas in legumes. Mulching This is the placement of materials such as banana leaves or polythene sheets on the ground next to the growing crop. These materials should not come into contact with the base of the crop as they may encourage pest attack. Importance of Mulching Reduction of evaporation rate. Smothers weeds. Moderation of soil temperature. Reduction of speed of run offs. Types of Mulching Materials Organic mulching materials such as; Sawdust, wood shavings, coffee pulps, rice husks, Dry grass, banana leaves, dry maize stalk, napier grass. Inorganic or synthetic materials commonly used are either black or transparent polythene sheets. Advantages of Mulching Prevents water evaporation thus maintaining moisture in the soil for crop use. Acts as an insulator thus modifying the soil temperature. It helps to control soil erosion. It controls weeds by suppressing them. After decomposition organic mulch add nutrients to the soil thus improving its fertility. Humus produced after the decomposition of organic mulch improves soil structure and the water holding capacity of the soil. Disadvantages of Mulching It is a fire risk. Provides a breeding ground as well as a hiding place for pests that finally may attack the crops. Traps the light showers of rainfall thus lowering the chances of rain drops reaching the soil. It is expensive to acquire, transport and apply.   Routine Field Practices Thinning Removal of excess, weak, damaged or diseased seedlings. Allows the remaining seedlings to get enough nutrients and moisture. It is aimed at obtaining optimum plant population. Gapping Filling the gaps so as to maintain proper plant population. Gaps occur as a result of failure of seeds to germinate or dying of seedlings. It should be done early enough for the seedlings to catch up with the other plants Rogueing This is the removal and destruction of a diseased part of a plant or the whole plant. The destruction can be achieved through burning of the uprooted plant. Pruning Removal of extra unwanted parts of the plant. Reasons for pruning are: To remove old, unproductive or diseased, damaged parts of the plant. To train plants to take a desirable shape for example formative pruning in tea. To control crop leave ratio hence avoiding overbearing. To control diseases and pests for example antestia bugs in coffee. To facilitate other operations such as spraying, picking and seeding. To reduce wastage of chemicals applied on the crop. To remove branches that  interfere with traffic, telephone lines and view. Open up the plant to allow free air circulation and exposure of leaves to sunlight.        Note: Tools used are secateur, pruning saw and pruning knife. Earthing-up This is the placement of soil in form of a heap around the base of the plant. It is mostly carried out in tuber crops such as Irish and sweet potatoes to improve tuber formation. It is also carried out in groundnuts and maize. In groundnuts it promotes production of pods while in maize it provides support to prevent lodging. Crop Protection Weed Control Weeds are plants growing where they are not wanted, that is a plant out of place. Such plants include blackjack, couch grass, thorn apple and Mcdonald’s eye. Such plants should be eradicated or controlled using recommended methods. Pest Control Crop pests are living organisms that are harmful to the crops. They include; insects, nematodes, rodents, thrips and mites. They cause great damage to crops in the field and stored produce. Control of Crop Diseases A disease is any alteration in the state of an organism and functions of a plant or its parts. Disease causing organisms are known as pathogens. They include fungi, viruses and bacteria. Diseases caused by fungi are referred to as fungal diseases while those caused by viruses and bacteria are referred to as viral and bacterial respectively. Harvesting It is the gathering or of the farm produce after maturity.     Time of harvesting depends on: Stage of maturity of the crops. Use of the crop. Tastes and preferences of consumers. Weather conditions, hence liability to spoilage. Moisture. Methods of harvesting is determined by: Scale of farming for example large scale farming machines are used. Type of crop for example pyrethrum is harvested by hand. Uniformity in ripening of the crop for example wheat is harvested by use of combined harvester while coffee is harvested by hand. Uniformity in height of the crop and size of seed, fruits and flowers. Financial status of the farmer. Part of the plant to be harvested. Post-Harvest Practices These are the preparations carried out on crop produce before it gets to the consumer.  They include; Threshing/shelling. Drying. Cleaning. Sorting and grading. Dusting. Processing. Packaging. Storage      Purpose of storage is to; Prevent spoilage Make the produce available for future use To await good market prices. Requirements for proper store are: It should be clean. It should be well ventilated. It should be raised from the ground to prevent damp conditions. It should be dry. It should be strong to hold crop produce. It should be easy to clean. It should be vermin-proof. It should be secure from theft. It should be