March 5, 2023

Introduction At the end of the chapter you will be able to define what counseling process is. You should be able to mention the various models, and describe in detail the  stages of counseling as well as the challenges of the counseling process an dhow to deal with them. Meaning of counseling process The Oxford dictionary defines a process as connected series of actions, methods and changes. It is a forward movement where progress is observed. A process is an identifiable sequence of events taking place over a period of time. Imagine what goes on in a manufacturing plant. Material in put in the machine in one form – what is called raw form or raw material. It undergoes conversion through different stages and finally comes out in a totally different and improved form – what we call a finished product. In counseling as a process as a term implies continuous change and changes that take place (or should take place) in the counselee and that promote personality changes in a desired direction. This change includes counselee self awareness, behavioural change in a desired direction which will lead to goal achievement and understating of potentialities and limitations and how to utilize them best in achieving his/her goals both now an in future. Successful and effective counseling may take 30mins, a few second or months. The sequence of events, the dynamics involved and the nature and extent of exploration differ with each individual counselee. The Process of Counseling The traditional counseling process includes the following six important, yet separate components. Opening: The opening process is perhaps, one of the most important parts of the interaction with your client. It is your chance to get to know your client and for them to get to know you. It is also where you will set the tone for the rest of the therapeutic relationship. Exploring Client Understanding: The exploration process is where you will begin to understand your client. You will explore their past and evaluate their current concerns. Here, you will together establish goals and set expectations. Understanding: Important in developing a strong relationship with your client, you can demonstrate understanding by using verbal and nonverbal cues, as well as reflections and paraphrases. Intervention: The intervention process is about choosing the appropriate counseling techniques that will encourage growth within your client. Exploring Problems: Exploration is the process of learning more about your client and why they have come to counseling. Exploration is necessary in truly understanding a client’s thoughts and feelings in relation to their pressing problem. Empower to Create Own Solutions: Empowering your client is not about providing them with all the answers. It is about empowering them, with your counseling skills, to find their own solutions. Stages in counseling process Steps of counseling process: Identify the problem and make sure that you really know the problem. Analyze the forces influencing the behavior and determine which of these forces you have control over which of the forces the employee has control over. Determine if the force has to be modified, eliminated, and enforced. Plan, coordinate, and organize the session. Determine the best time to conduct the session. Conduct the session using sincerity, compassion, or kindness. This does not mean you cannot be firm or in control. During the session, determine what the employee believes causes the counterproductive behavior, what will be required to change it. Maintain a sense of timing as to when to use directive and non-directive counseling. Using all the facts and make a decision or a plan of action to correct the problem. If more counselingis needed, set a firm date and time for the next session. Different writers have different views about the number of steps involved in the counseling process. Some writers advocate for a three step process, others a four step process, a five step process and so on. In this unit we shall confine ourselves to the three step process. In the three step counseling process there are three stages. These include exploration, understanding and action. We shall look into each of these stages separately. The Exploration stage What is to explore? According to the Oxford dictionary, to explore is to look for, to search in order to discover, to try and find out something. In counseling the counselor helps the counselee to articulate their concerns, to go far and deeper in order to find out what is hidden. He helps the counselee to search within themselves for hidden motives, thoughts and feelings that have been pushed away unconsciousness. The counselor helps the counselee to talk about themselves and their concerns specific and focused way. What are the aims of the exploration stage? Firstly the counselor needs to establish a working relationship with the counselee. For this happen the counselor needs to accept the counselee unconditionally, reflective of how offensive his behaviour might be. The counselee needs to feel valued and experiences will appreciate and valued. The counselor also needs to be genuine empathic with the client. As the counselor you need to show some expertness, attractiveness and trustworthiness. These are discussed in greater detail previously the counselor-counselee relationship. It would be helpful for you to revisit the section once more and ensure that it is clearly understood. Secondly, exploration aims at clarifying and defining problems. The counselor and counselee need to know clearly and precisely what issues and concerns they are about addressing. As the counselor you will seek to establish how the counselee view themselves and their problems – what do they believe? What do they feel?  Who else involved? Help them to clarify what concerns them. Another aim of exploration stage is to enable the counselor to make an assessment through exploration that the counselor collects and processes information from which develop the counseling program. He determines the counselee’s goals and expectations from the counseling sessions. Using these he is able to plan the intervention and strategies to use to provide effective treatment. It is during exploration that a contract is negotiated. A contract is a

Introduction In this unit our focus in the ethics for the counseling profession. We shall start by first trying to understand the meaning of counseling ethics and the principles upon which they have been developed. Importance of ethics in counseling will also be discussed as well as ethical issues in counseling. Types, uses and storage of records in counseling are other issues that will be discussed. By the end of this chapter you will be able to explain what counseling ethics is. You will also be able to list and discuss the principles of counseling ethics and the importance of ethics in counseling. You will be in apposition to discuss in detail the ethical issues in counseling with relevant examples. You should also be able to enumerate the types of records kept in the profession, how they are stored and their uses. Meaning of counseling ethics Ethics is a set of law or rules that govern that govern an institution or certain profession and professionals regarding their behavior. Professions such as the legal, teaching, accounting, medical and so on all have set rules and standards that govern their behavior and operations. Counseling ethics is the laid down rules and regulations that govern the professional conduct in counseling. They are the set of moral standards that govern the operation of counselors.   Principles of counseling ethics Respect for autonomy Autonomy is the freedom of the individual to make their own choices and to decide their own actions or destiny. Individuals have a right to self determination. As a counselor you need to appreciated that counselees have their own resources, capacity and potential.  They are able to come with heir own decisions on what to do when faced by certain situations Each person is unique and reacts and behaves differently. The counselor needs to allow each counselee to be different and independent. The counselees have a right to think the way they want and to feel the way they are feeling even if others disagree. One of the ways in which a counselor respects the counselee’s autonomy is by respecting their values and beliefs. As a counselor you must not impose your values on the counselee. The counselee has a right to withdraw from the sessions as and when he/she wishes. The counselee needs to make an informed choice when entering into the counseling contract. As a counselor define your role and the counselee role as clearly as possible. Explain confidentiality and its limits and all other relevant aspects such as fees, frequency and length of sessions and so on. Respect for autonomy assures that individuals are capable of understanding the implications and consequences of he decisions or choices they make.   Can a child’s autonomy be respected? Yes when they reach an age that they understand their decisions.   Beneficence (Beneficial) This is the working to promote the greatest good to our counselees. Counselors have the obligation to benefit their counselees through their interventions. Counselors must do what they can to help their counselees. This means that if for one reason or another you as the counselor are not able to be of postponing the session or even referring the counselee to another counselor.   Non malficience (no harm) This regards the counselor ensuring that he does no psychological harm to the counselee. One of the ways to do this is to make accurate assessment of the counselee. Chose any strategy and intervention wisely and use skills correctly. The impact on the counselee also needs to be monitored closely. Another way that the counselor ensures no harm is done on the counselee is by practicing within the limits of his/her competence. If your level of training is for that of general psychology and a counselee comes who has drug addiction problems, it is wise to refer them to a counselor specifically trained in drug and substance abuse addictions. Counselors also ensure no harm is done to the counselee by ensuring that they get regular supervision of their work. The ode of ethics requires that a counselor goes for supervisor after every eight counselee hours. This supervision must e conducted by an accredited supervisor. Counselees should not be exposed to research or experiments which have high risks and little hope for benefit.   Justice (fairness) These are standards for fairness and equal distribution of costs and benefits. We need to treat all counselees equally despite their race, gender, religion, status and so on. As counselors we should display respective and unbiased attitude when counseling counselees.   Fidelity This is promise keeping and the value of trust, which is paramount in maintaining a good working relationship. It is about enhancing disclosure and being loyal to the counselee and to the profession. Fidelity is about not abandoning our counselees in the middle of the counseling contract. Any situations that may arise making the counselor unable to attend a session or continue with the contract need to be communicated to the counselee in good time. Examples include going outside the country, being sick or being held up by emergency situations. Proper arrangements for referral need to be made if necessary. Fidelity principal relates to the existence of loyalty, reliability, dependability and acting in good faith.   IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS INCOUNSELING Ethics in counseling provide a framework for counselors to consult when faced with ethical dilemma or uncertainty. Ethics promote standards of practice and quality of service available to counselees. They establish a framework within which malpractice can be identified and disciplinary procedures applied. Ethics enhance the image of counseling-Counseling code of ethics focus discussion on ethical issues for future improved codes and standards of practice. Ethics provide a mechanism for self regulation and self governing of the organization produced the code.   Ethical issues in counseling Generally, any involvement by a professional with a counselee, that may impair his judgment or result in exploitation or harm to the counselee is considered unethical. Specifically, the following are ethical issues that arise in counseling. Informed consent

A technique refers to a particular method, skills, or art applied to a particular task. It is a particular method of doing an activity usually involving practical skills. Counseling technique is a particular method a counselor uses to adapt to a particular situation. They are specific procedures and skills used by the counselor to achieve his counseling goals and objectives. These techniques help the counselor to not only form effective relationship with the client but also influences how clients view themselves, their world and how they interact with others. Types of techniques There are three major types of techniques used in counseling: Directive counseling technique Non- directive counseling technique Electic counseling technique Directive counseling/prescriptive counseling by E.G. Williamson Counselor-centered: the counselor directs the client to take steps in order to resolve his conflicts It is based on the assumption that the client cannot resolve his problems because of lack of information The counselor plays an important role: he tries to direct the thinking of the client by informing, explaining, interpreting and advising It gives more importance to intellectual aspects than emotional aspects This approach is good to address the problems relating to educational and vocational adjustment. It is more useful where the individual wants information and advice for choice of a career According to this view point the counseling is an interview in which the counselor asks a series of standardized questions and each carries a short answer. The counselor does not allow the development of expression and feelings. He leads as an expert, evaluates and gives suggestion vice Basic Assumptions of Directive Counseling: According to Willy, the following can be the basic assumptions of directive counseling- 1. Competency in giving Advice-: The counselor posses the best training experience and information. He is more competent to provide an advice to problem. 2. Counseling as an intellectual process -: A client’s intellectual is not destroyed as a result of mal-adjustment. Hence counseling is primarily an intellectual process .It stresses upon the intellectual aspects of a person instead of emotional aspects of the personality. 3. Counseling objectives is problem solving situation-: The objective counseling are achieved through problem solving situation. 4. Client’s incapability of solving the problems-: The counselee does not possess the capability for solving the problem always. Steps of directive counseling Williamson has given six steps of directive counseling: Analysis – : It includes collection of information about the individual which can be collected through structured interviews, psychological case history methods, Interaction with family members, friends, etc. Synthesis – involves organizing information in the logical manner to analyze the individual in terms of his qualifications, assets, potentials, liability adjustment, cultural background, habits etc. Diagnosis – consists of the interpretation of the data in relation to the nature and problem, the causes of problems. Prognosis – prediction is made about the future development of the problem. Counseling – This is to bring about adjustment and re-adjustment to the individual in relation to his problem. Attitudes and interest of the individual are considered during the counseling. It emphasis the individual to develop life cycle where an effort in the positive direction could lead to success and success in turn could lead to further efforts and motivations. Follow up – An individual may be able to solve immediate problems through counseling but new problems may occur or the original problem may re-occur. Follow-up with the client is extremely necessary. The role of counselor is important as he has to make the individual understand and accept his strength and also his weakness and faults Role of the counselor in directive counseling Under this process the counselor Plans the counseling process, Analyze the problem, Identifies the triggers to the problem Identifies the exact nature of the problem and Provide various options/solutions to the problems of the client Merits of directive counseling Less time consuming hence can be adopted when early solution is required That technique is considered as a most economic approach and important for student counseling because it is less time consuming and student who lack experience are easily influenced by the counselor’s experience and specialize knowledge. Best used for interaction between less matured and less intelligent client and experienced counselor The students feel that the counselor has superior Knowledge and therefore a professional relation takes place. The relation is the base of this kind of approach. A submissive and highly emotionalized counseling of student can cultivate self-confidence in the individual. A relationship is based on dignity to help the student to reach his goal. Demerits The client never becomes independent of the counselor Personal autonomy and integrity of the client is not respected It will not help the client to develop own attitudes towards own problems Non-directive counseling/permissive counseling The chief exponent of this type of counseling is Carl R. Rodgers. It is the reverse of directive counseling i.e. the Client-centered process. The counselee is the pivot of the whole counseling process and the main function of the counselor is to create an atmosphere in which the client can work out his/her problems Emotional aspects are stressed rather than intellectual aspect   Philosophy and Basic Assumptions Optimistic/Positive view of humanity People innately strive toward becoming fully functioning i.e. Humans are growth oriented, individualistic It is therapist beliefs and attitudes in the inner resources of the client that create the therapeutic climate for growth. Clients’ self-healing is activated as they become empowered Clients actualize potential for growth, wholeness, spontaneity, Inner-directedness. Client primarily brings about change, not the therapist i.e. Client is in charge, responsible Self regard, conditions of worth   Steps in client-centered counseling Carl Rodgers has given the following steps in non-directive counseling: Defining the problematic situation – the client defines the problematic situation Free expression of feelings – the client is made aware that s/he can free express him/herself and the counselor approves of that Development of insight – the counselor goes on thinking regarding the client’s new set of feeling along with the development of the client’s insight and he

Meaning of counseling Counseling is a process which takes place on one-to-one relationship between an individual overwhelmed by problems which he/she cannot cope with alone and a professional worker whose training and experience have qualified him/her to help others reach solutions to various types of personal difficulties (Ilahn and Machean, 1955) It is a helping process that uses the safety engender by a special kind of relationship to help the individual to get access to a greater part of their personal resources as a means of responding to the challenges in life. It uses special skills and techniques in threat relationships to help people become more competent, more contented and more creative. It does not deal with the mentally ill but with normal individuals facing all the difficulties involved in domestic, work oriented and social life. It is about helping people grow in emotional fitness and health (Mc Guiness , 1998) Inskipp and John in 1984 defines counseling as away of relating and responding to another person so that the other person is helped to explore his thoughts, feelings and behavior to reach a clear self understanding and to find and use his strengths and cope more effectively in life by making appropriate decisions or ,taking relevant action. The British Association of Counselors (BAC) (1990) defined counseling as the skilled and principled use of relationships which develop self knowledge and acceptance, and growth of personal resources. Counselling is not a process of giving advice, but it is a process of helping your patient who is genuinely in need. It aims to help an individual to help himself to overcome his problem. The overall aim of counseling is to live more fully satisfying lives. It may be concerned with: Addressing and resolving specific problems, coping with crisis through feelings and inner conflicts, decision making, and Improving the relationship with other people. As a profession, counseling focuses on helping ‘normal’ people with personal, family, educational and career issues through individual, couples, family, or group therapy. Counseling therefore is that interaction between two individuals called counselor and counselee. The counselor here is the one who has attained professional training and experience in the relevant area. The counselee – is an individual who is overwhelmed with problems which s/he cannot solve Counseling and other closely related terms Guidance Guidance is a continuous process concerned with determining the end and providing for the developmental needs of other people. Guidance is a broad area of educational activities which are aimed at assisting individuals to make and carry out adequate plans and achieving them. It helps in adjustments in life (Petterson , 1971) Guidance and counseling are similar in that they both involve a process and they are both helping in nature. However, there are distinct differences between the two that may be summarized as shown in the table hereunder:- Psychotherapy and counseling Psychotherapy is a long term process to assist with serious psychological problems. Psychotherapy and counseling are similar in that they both involve a process and are psychological in nature. However, they are different in the following ways;- Social work and counseling Social work is a profession which promotes social change, problem solving in human relationship and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance well being. Utilizing theories of human behavior and social systems, social work intervenes at the points where people interact with their environments. Principles of human rights and social justice are fundamental to social work. Social workers and counselors work towards helping individuals develop, adjust to a change in life circumstances, or find new opportunities and resources. The key difference is that while people come for counseling through choice, those using social work services are often compelled by societal or legal mandates to address a particular area of their lives, or are driven to ask for help by poverty or some other type o disadvantage. The dimension therefore that clearly differentiates counseling from social work is context. Another difference is that counselors do not have to engage with service delivery directly with their clients’ social environments. Counselors can offer confidentiality in a distinctive way and can operate in neatly contracted hourly sessions within discrete agencies. Confidentiality is not necessarily offered in social work and there are no contracted sessions. What counseling is not Counseling is not: – Information giving Advice giving A conversation or a good chat Exchange of opinions Discussion Befriending Confession Interrogation An interview Teaching  Goals of Counseling: listening keenly to the client is the main goal. Identify the need of the client. E.g., parents need counseling for their children’s behavior problems. To make the patient to ventilate his emotions properly and help him to be aware of his own emotions and encourage him to be independent. Main problem should be focused so that the sub-problems should be identified by the patient himself. Make the patient to accept himself with his problem and help him to adjust with it till it gets over. To focus on his strengths by studying the case and produce positive attitude in him and ultimately help him to reduce his negativity. Importance of counseling Counseling enhances greater self awareness of the individual. According to Blocher (1996) counseling helps an individual become aware of him/herself and the way he/she is reacting to the behavioral influences of his environment. He/she is able to establish personal meaning to the behavior and to develop, clarify a set of goals and values for the future behavior. Counseling enables the individual meet vocational and personal problems of adjustments to their life. People are constantly facing adjustment problems brought about by the rapid social change caused by industrialization and urbanization. Change is being required in all life aspects – educational, vocational, marital, parental, personal and so on. These changes at times bring them heavy demands causing tension and conflicts to the individual. Counseling assists individuals to enhance their personal, social, emotional and intellectual development thereby making themselves sufficient and self directed. Counseling improves personal effectiveness where the individual is able

INTRODUCTION TO COUNSELLING KNEC NOTES – Click to view TECHNIQUES OF COUNSELLING FOR SOCIAL WORK KNEC NOTES – Click to view ETHICS IN COUNSELLING KNEC NOTES – Click to view COUNSELLING PROCESS KNEC NOTES – Click to view ROLE OF COMMUNICATION IN COUNSELLING KNEC NOTES – Click to view SETTING UP A COUNSELLING PROGRAMME KNEC NOTES – Click to view

INTRODUCTION So Many Causes need to be advocated. They range from legal and political issues to environment, women empowerment, child abuse, human rights, social welfare, and economic development and so on. So Many People long to make their voice heard in various areas and would wish to take an active part in a local or global recovery process. These are doctors, lawyers, psychologists, students, business people, craftspeople, artists, officials etc…They daily witness injustice, oppression, exploitation, discrimination, unequal opportunities and so on. But they all have in common the unshakable Faith that a better world is definitely possible if everyone embraces the idea of Change and if we all unite and co-operate to achieve that change. GENDER BASED VIOLENCE In October 2007, OCHA successfully advocated with the Permanent Mission of France to the United Nations to expand a planned Arria Formula meeting on women in situations of armed conflict in Africa. Chaired by France’s Human Rights Minister Rama Yade, the meeting highlighted the testimonies of former President of Ireland and former UN High Commissioner Mary Robinson and Executive Director of Femmes Africa Solidarité (FAS) Bineta Diop, following their visit to the Chad and Darfur. It also included the potent and compelling accounts of Eve Ensler, who had recently returned from DRC. Robust advocacy around SGBV also came from UN Action and its partners, in particular Peace Women, Oxfam and International Rescue Committee, and from former Emergency Relief Coordinator Jan Egeland, former United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights Louise Arbour, and Yakin Eturk, UN Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, Its Causes and Consequences. Criticism directed at the Security Council noted that although the Council had recognized that sexual violence continues to manifest itself throughout many conflicts, little had been done to address it as a threat to peace and security, even in post-conflict situations. Joining Forces Recently there have been a number of relevant initiatives within the UN. These include Security Council and Arria Formula meetings on Women, Peace and Security, and the 40th session of the UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), where in February 2008 the Secretary-General launched his UNite Campaign to End Violence against Women. The Campaign, which OCHA is supporting, calls on Governments, civil society, the private sector, the media and the entire UN System to join forces in addressing the global pandemic of violence against women and girls. On 27 May 2008, ERC John Holmes addressed the issue of sexual violence in his speech to the Security Council on the Protection of Civilians, reiterating his call for improved reporting on sexual violence, and highlighting the need to improve the administration of justice for these crimes. Under-Secretary-General Holmes also underlined the importance of the Secretary-General’s recommendation for targeted sanctions in response to sexual violence. That same day, a conference in the United Kingdom, sponsored jointly by UNIFEM and DPKO, examined the role of military peacekeepers in providing protection to women in conflict situations. The conference, which OCHA also participated in, laid the groundwork for a UK-hosted Arria Formula meeting held in June on the same topic, bringing many of the issues addressed and conclusions formulated at the previous meeting to the attention of Security Council members, and setting the stage for a planned debate on 19 June 2008 on Women, Peace, and Security. No Amnesty The 19 June debate on the issue of sexual violence in situations of armed conflict was convened by the United States in their capacity as President of the Security Council for the month of June, and chaired by Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice.  Following the debate, the Security Council passed Resolution 1820, a groundbreaking resolution that rejected the notion that those who perpetrate sexual violence could in any way benefit from amnesty after conflicts die down, and called on warring factions to ensure that civilians are protected from sexual violence. Most importantly, the Security Council acknowledged through this resolution that sexual violence is not only about individuals – it also impacts seriously on the security and stability of countries and therefore is well within the rubric of matters to be addressed by the Security Council itself, including through sanctions or a more robust response. SEXUAL OFFENSE AND ADVOCACY Sexual assault advocacy programs are a critical part of any community response. As is the case in responding to victims of domestic violence, it is critical that advocates responding to victims of sexual assault in a non-judgmental and supportive manner, suggesting options but allowing the victim to decide what course of action to take. The first rape crisis centers emerged in the United States in the 1970s. Many of the early centers were run by volunteers with no counseling or other professional health services background, out of their own homes. Early centers were non-hierarchal and often had political agendas. During the mid to late 1970s, many centers began to “professionalize”—to hire professionally certified staff, incorporate hierarchal governance structures, adopt apolitical agendas. In part, this process was due to increased reliance on government sources of funding and a corresponding increase in affiliations with larger community organizations, hospitals, or prosecutor’s offices. At the time of a study done in the mid-1980s, researchers found that centers could be classified as one of four types: some had remained feminist collectives, while others were more “mainstream” and “traditional in structure,” embedded within a social service of mental health agency, or based out of hospital emergency rooms. Rape crisis centers also exist throughout Europe and are coordinated by the Rape Crisis Network Europe. Rape crisis counselors work directly with victims, explaining their rights and what they can expect from the medical and legal systems. They help victim gain medical care, provide emotional support, and connect victims to other services, and maintain the victim’s confidentiality. In an immediate crisis situation, advocates encourage victims to seek medical attention—the victim may have injuries that need treatment; in addition, it is important that forensic evidence be collected as soon as possible after the incident—ideally within 72 hours after

INTRODUCTION Universal human right Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world, Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people, Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law, Whereas it is essential to promote the development of friendly relations between nations, Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the Charter reaffirmed their faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person and in the equal rights of men and women and have determined to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom, Whereas Member States have pledged themselves to achieve, in co-operation with the United Nations, the promotion of universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms, Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms is of the greatest importance for the full realization of this pledge, Now, Therefore THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY proclaims THIS UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations, to the end that every individual and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive measures, national and international, to secure their universal and effective recognition and observance, both among the peoples of Member States themselves and among the peoples of territories under their jurisdiction. Article 1 All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. Article 2 Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty. Article 3 Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person. Article 4 No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms. Article 5 No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. Article 6 Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law. Article 7 All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in violation of this Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination. Article 8 Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law. Article 9 No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile. Article 10 Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and of any criminal charge against him. Article 11 (1) Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law in a public trial at which he has had all the guarantees necessary for his defence. (2) No one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on account of any act or omission which did not constitute a penal offence, under national or international law, at the time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed than the one that was applicable at the time the penal offence was committed. Article 12 No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks. Article 13 (1) Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each state. (2) Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country. Article 14 (1) Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution. (2) This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions genuinely arising from non-political crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations. Article 15 (1) Everyone has the right to a nationality. (2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change his nationality. Article 16 (1) Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution. (2) Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses. (3) The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by society and the State. Article 17 (1) Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others. (2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property. Article 18 Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom

INTRODUCTION Factors to Consider In Lobbying Plan Get to know the key players Get to know the policy-makers Get to know the key committees and how they work Learn the art of good timing Create a political issue Observe the five commandments of lobbying: Always tell the truth Never promise more than you can deliver Listen, so that you can understand what is going on Co-opt, don’t bypass staff and advisers Do not spring surprises when creating alliances Prepare properly Use the media strategically Develop your expertise Anticipate what the opposition will do Create strategic alliances TECHNIQUES USED IN LOBBYING Lobbying is action people take to influence those in the government to pass certain bills. While there are specific rules on lobbying, a lobbyist can have a direct influence on whether a bill passes or not. The two types of lobbying; Grassroots lobbying and direct lobbying Grassroots lobbying Grassroots lobbying (also indirect lobbying) is about raising awareness of a particular cause at the local level, with the intention of reaching the legislature and making a difference in the decision-making process. Grassroots lobbying is an approach that separates itself from direct lobbying through the act of asking the general public to contact legislators and government officials concerning the issue at hand, as opposed to directing the message at the legislation themselves. Its goal is to influence legislation through the general public. Companies, associations and citizens are increasingly partaking in grassroots lobbying as an attempt to influence a change in legislation. The unique characteristic of grassroots lobbying compared to other forms of lobbying is that in involves stimulating the politics of specific communities. This type of lobbying is different from the usual type as it is naturally brought upon by the organization unlike the structural lobbying seen elsewhere. Tactics There are several tactics used by groups in order to promote advocacy of different issues among the legislature, but the main two tactics used in Grassroots or “outside” advocacy are holding press conferences or organizing press releases, and mobilizing the mass membership to create a movement. By mobilizing the group that the lobby has built, this puts pressure on the legislature to listen and take notice of what concerns they may have. These tactics are used after the lobbying group gains a portion of the publics trust and support through speaking out in crowded areas, passing out flyers and even campaigning through web and television outlets. More recently, due to the potential of other modern communication devices, grassroots lobbying is expected to only increase as a form of shaping public opinion. Lobbying Media lobbying as a type of grassroots lobbying can come in a variety of forms. Their attempt is to create campaigns that support the legislation being objected. These campaigns are published in all forms of media ranging from television to magazines and internet. Because grassroots lobbying is geared toward local organizations and communities, these types of media outlets are used mainly by large associations that can afford them. Smaller organizations tend to use free media on public television, radio and other smaller outlets. Other forms of free media that make a large impact are things like boycotting, protesting and demonstrations. Large Company Campaigns Large companies take advantage of grassroots lobbying as a means of impacting change in legislation. There are certain steps that need to be implemented before the outcome of the lobbying can take place. The first step is a ‘legislative action program’. This is the role of the management to make the action important in the eyes of the rest of the organization. Not only must they identify specific legislation concerns to the rest of the company, the lobbyists must also a type of study identifying the sectors of the public that are being affected. The second step is to sensitize the members of the organization to writing, calling or visiting officials and the Member of Congress as soon as an ‘alert’ is given. This will bring about internal communication with levels of authority. Finally, the third step is media planning. There must be use of advertising, posting articles, commercials and TV programming that feature people impacted by the specific cause. These will be geared to those representatives of a Congressional district.  Trends Trends from the past decade in grassroots lobbying have been the increase in aggressive recruiting of volunteers and starting campaigns early on, way before the legislature must make a decision. Also, with increasing technology and modern communication techniques, lobbying groups have been able to create interactive web pages to email, recruit volunteers, assign them to tasks and keep the goal of the lobbying group on the right track.[5] With the added devices of today such as Facebook and Twitter, Grassroots lobbyists have an even easier, cheaper, and faster way to reach the masses and develop a strong base for their issues to be heard. Hot Topics for Lobbyists Not surprisingly, the major concerns of the general public do not reflect those of the lobbying groups. This is why the lobbying groups feel that they must use the aforementioned tactics to sway the public a certain way on an issue that they may never knew existed. To the general public, crime is the number one problem in nation, followed by the state of the economy and international affairs. However, the main concern for lobbying groups in the past has been on health concerns. A study done in 2009 shows that over 20 percent of lobbying groups put health concerns such as disease prevention, Medicare, or prescription drugs as a top priority. This interest in health is followed closely by environmental concerns as well. Although Grassroots lobbying has changed the stage of such advocacy, it is still concerning the same issues as other more traditional or direct lobbying Regulations Lobbying and the stimulation of grassroots lobbying, is protected by the First Amendment rights of speech, association, and petition . Federal law does not mandate grassroots lobbying disclosure, yet, 36 states regulate grassroots lobbying. 22 states define lobbying

INTRODUCTION Meaning of lobbying It’s the practice of private advocacy with the aim  of influencing  a governing  body in order to ensure  that an individual  or organization point of being placed  on its practice  so as to avoid  political  manipulation. Lobbying is an organized attempt by an individual, an organization or groups of individuals and/or organizations to influence on behalf of a particular interest all the stakeholders involved in preparing and passing legislation. Such stakeholders include ministerial advisers and staff, legislative drafters, policy makers, members of Parliament, portfolio committee members, select committees, the staff of various committees, experts and consultants serving those committees, etc. It also means seeking the support of an influential person or persons and providing accurate information which legislators can use in their decision-making. Lobbying is give-and-take process that also involves gathering new information and analysis, which enables lobbyists to strengthen their own strategies. Lobbying means persuading individuals or groups with decision-making power to support a position you believe is right. When you do your organizational planning it is important to identify other stakeholders whose co-operation or influence you need. So you lobby people with power to act in support of the needs and interests of those who do not have direct power and influence. Lobbying can be used to influence anyone with power for example: Parents can lobby the school governing body to provide after care at school Shoppers can lobby the manager of the local supermarket to stay open for longer hours Civics can lobby the council to write off arrears Conservatives can lobby the President to bring back the death penalty Lobbying is mostly used by organizations to persuade politicians or others with power and influence to support the organization’s position. There are many ways of lobbying. You can: phone make submissions write to individuals go to meet decision-makers or invite them to meet people in your area Get other powerful people to influence them informally, etc. Important things to know about lobbying It is important to understand some basic principles of effective lobbying before we look at methods. Some basic rules for lobbying: Be clear about your issue, your facts and your position Use lobbying only for important issues that will improve life in the community and make very sure that your position is the right one before you start lobbying Be careful not to speak “on behalf of people” unless you have consulted them and involved them in developing your lobbying strategy (See section on Planning for guidance on analyzing the problem or issue) Target the right people – analyze who has the power to make a decision on your issue and target your lobbying at these people Build a lobby group – analyze who [individuals and organizations] can influence the decision-makers and try to mobilize them to support your issue – never try to lobby alone. People with political power are often most sensitive to grassroots mobilization that represents their voters. Prepare for opposition – analyze the opposition’s position and develop counter arguments to that since they may also be lobbying the same person Think about your target audience – how the decision-maker can benefit from agreeing with you and include this in your arguments – most decision-makers will agree more easily if they can see how your proposals link to their concerns Never use blackmail or bribery or even gifts and favors to persuade someone. That is corruption, not lobbying. How to lobby In this section we cover the most common lobbying methods. Read through the whole section and then choose the methods that best suit your organizations’ goals. The lobbying exercise at the end of this section will help you to plan which methods to use. Support base You should never, never lobby alone. Try to get organizations or individuals who support your cause to also use the methods discussed below. Whilst politicians are always sensitive to organizations, they also respond well to lots of appeals from individuals. Letters Letters are the easiest method to use to lobby but they are not always the most effective. Many people in positions of power have administrative staff who read their mail and summaries it for them. Make letters as personal as possible and avoid getting different organizations and individuals to all send exactly the same letter. See the format under submissions for the issues that should be covered in a letter. Submissions Submissions are usually made to committees, or chairpersons of committees in government, and it is important to structure them in such a way that you get your points across powerfully. Here is a recipe you can follow. State clearly: The group or organization you represent, and contact details. The topic or issue that you want to make a submission about Why your group is making the submission e.g. your concern, how you are connected to the issue and your expertise or experience on the issue. The specific actions you would like the committee to take. The reasons why you would like them to take this action – this is where you give the facts and make your main points. Be as brief and accurate as possible. The reasons why the actions you recommend will be good for the interests of the committee – e.g. how it will improve the quality of service, make a contribution to the welfare of the community, save money or generally please their constituents. It is sometimes useful to outline briefly what would happen if no action is taken. Be careful not to sound as if you are threatening the decision-maker. Offer further information or face-to-face meetings on request Aides, Pass and secretaries Most decision-makers have staff that deal with documents, do research, and prepare briefings and programmes. Sometimes it as important to influence these people as their bosses. Make sure that you get to know them and spend time explaining your issues to them and building relationships. If they take you seriously it will be easier to get access to, and attention from,

INTRODUCTION Meaning of Partnership Partnership between two or more individual for individual or group benefit. Individual that is characterized by mutual commitment and responsibility toward achieving specific goals and objectives. Ways of building partnership in advocacy Common goal. Set goals enable partners to work in achieving the targeted goals. In advocacy partners  advocate  for the plight  of the disadvantage  in society group  should  share  similar  interest  and goals . Compatibility discourages conflict of interest. This provide basis of attaining partnership and objective goals. Partners and stakeholders should be committed in attainment of goals. Through commitment, attainment or success of the partnership is enhanced. Commitment also acts as a motivator factor to the stakeholder in a partnership. Mutual cooperation. Cooperation promotes sustainability in partnership and a sense of belonging among stakeholders. This involve concerted  effort  by stakeholder  in planning  , decision  making and implementation   of advocacy Recognition of partnership effort in fulfillment of objectives. Transparency and accountability Avoid duplication to avoid stiff competition while building partnership. Active participation`. Ways of determining   partnership in advocacy Common goals Trust Acceptance of conflict Equality and consensus Mutual respect Partnership processes  Role of partnership in advocacy It enhances equitable  sharing  of resources among  stakeholders  as it facilitate  working through  specialization  as the side  of the worker. It increases efficiency and effectiveness of initiatives and project. It promotes complementing while avoiding competition. It promotes shared responsibility among stakeholders. It promotes active perception of the partners which lead to realization of a sense of belonging. It promote cooperation, collaboration i.e. exchange of ideas and effective decision making through its bringing of a diverse stakeholders. It provides the base of social and economic development through effective coordination of activities and utilization of resources. Strategies of forming partnership Effective collaborative partnerships promote actions that both improve personal outcomes for those receiving services and foster positive change in the systems that influence these services. The Institute for Community Inclusion at the University of Massachusetts Boston completed a research study on interagency partnerships (Butterworth, Foley, & Metzel, 2001). This study identified a series of quality indicators for effective strategies in forming effective interagency partnerships. For each of these quality indicators, there are a series of self-evaluation questions a partnership can use to identify its areas of strength and needed improvement. The questions focus on determining the extent to which each indicator is fully or partially in-place. For those indicators that are not fully in-place, follow-up actions can be identified and initiated. This self-evaluation can be used as a planning tool during the development of partnership and for periodic reviews in monitoring the partnerships role and effectiveness. The following presents let’s review examples of self-evaluation review questions for each of the indicators; Indicator 1 – The partnership has a clearly defined purpose: Purpose is operationally defined by having clearly identified outcomes and a data collection system in place to measure the intended outcomes. The outcome measures should emphasize quality of services and outcomes. Indicator 2 – Allies to the partnership are identified and involved with the collaborative effort: Allies to a partnership are both internal and external. Internal allies within the partnership must be identified. These internal allies are the stakeholders involved in the planning and implementation of the partnership. Support is also needed from external allies who need to ensure political support for the partnership. Allies to the partnership have a common interest in its purpose and a commitment to its success. Successful partnerships frequently have champions among their external allies who serve as key sponsors and advocates. Indicator 3 – The collaborators are committed to the partnership and exercise ownership in carrying out its activities: Ownership comes in part from identifying an individual from each partnering agency or program who is responsible for the implementation and success of the partnership. Inconsistent and/or rotating participation from partnering agencies will destroy the development of any real sense of ownership. Indicator 4 – The partnership leads to actions and outcomes consistent with the defined purpose: Having specific action plans in place where tasks are well-defined drives action-oriented partnerships. Action-oriented partnerships also have needed resources committed. These resources are both the time of the partners, particularly among the designated representatives, and in kind or monetary or monetary support. Indicator 5 – Mechanisms are in place to communicate values and resolve differences: Effective partnerships have organizational values that are identified and incorporated into action plans focused on meeting the interests and support needs of consumers. For example, an organizational value for a partnership focused on employment outcomes for individuals with significant disabilities could be a zero-reject approach to the consumer population, meaning that any person who expresses any interest in employment is given an opportunity. Effective partnerships also have mechanisms in place to resolve disagreements. These five quality indicators can be extremely useful both in forming a partnership and in monitoring and continually improving an existing partnership. Conscientious use of these indicators helps keep a partnership goal and action oriented. Impact of partnership on advocacy To be effective, collaborative community partnerships must result in improved employment related outcomes for individuals with significant disabilities. There are a variety of employment outcome benefits. The first benefit is improvement in the timeliness and quality of the services provided. The second benefit is improved employment outcomes. How do collaborators know whether these potential benefits are being realized? The answer is to set up an information system that allows the partners on a regular basis to accurately assess the outcomes being achieved. Successful partnerships lead to action and outcomes. Without dependable and timely information on service and employment outcomes, the partners will not be able to accurately identify either the strengths of the collaborative effort or the continuing issues that need to be addressed. Time waiting for services: A consumer stuck on a waiting list or given delayed appointments for services will quickly lose interest. Waiting lists are sometimes used because of funding and/or staff shortfalls. Reducing waiting lists and time delays in accessing services are critical initial focal

INTRODUCTION Policy advocacy is defined as the delib­erate process of influencing policy decision makers through targeted actions. Policy advocacy is the essential link that ensures research results enter the policy domain. Policy engagement is concerned with how research can make an impact on and change existing policy. Successful engagement with policy makers relies on understanding the policy environment. This involves understanding the roles and responsibilities of decision making at local, national, regional and international levels; identifying the available mech­anisms for creating policy change at the different levels; comprehending the processes by which policy shapers inform and influence policy makers; and becoming familiar with current relevant policy debates and the opportunities for engagement. Working alongside policy shapers and makers during the lifetime of a research project provides the opportunity to establish effective relationships with decision makers and identify key moments for engagement in the policy process. Role of research in advocacy It increases amount  of research  in advocacy  issue  and make  progress  possible  as it  promote It provide basis for all advocacy policies in the society of social justice and human right. it highlights areas  where social policies  are needed e.g. social It helps in solving operational problems in monitoring and evaluating of issues. Operational research. This is the application of mathematical and analytical technique to the solution of the problem. It provide the intellectual  satisfaction of knowing  for the sake  of knowledge  and  practical  utility  of knowing  to carry  out activities It assist practitioners  to develop  a body of principles  that make it possible  to understand  and predict  issues  of human It facilitates decision making through research and advocacy. Practitioners are able to choose strategies that are effective and efficient with clients. Motivation research  enable  practitioners  to understand  the behaviour of human being  in society  thus helping  practitioners  to develop appropriate  tool that are compatible  with  people  culture, norms and values. Research skills are integral or important requirement of advocacy practitioners. Provide mechanism for the formulation of good policy i.e. all exclusive i.e. the one that incorporate the view of the affected.   CHALLENGES OF ADOPTING RESEARCH ON ADVOCACY Policy makers face many challenges in trying to put into practice research in advocacy. This includes; Use of improper methodology Research should be equipped with aspect of methodology in order to handle information collected. A good research using research methodology is out where the sampling frame is represented and all inclusive. Duplication of research finding Researcher   undertaken  regular  tend to overlap  one  another  in their  guest  for research ( the out come tend to be  since due to  overlapping  therefore hindering their adoption.) Insufficient interaction Insufficient interaction useful finding in academic research end up gathering dust on shelves due to the lack of utilization of the concerned ministry. Confidence on information Most of government and private cooperation don’t have confidence on information supplied by researcher   to them. lack of equipment Most researchers face problems of researching due to lack of equipment and support staff. This lead to some researcher not being completed. Most government department does not publish their information for public utility. This makes it difficult for interested researcher identifying their gaps. What motivates people to undertake research? Desire to get research degree, diploma, masters, and PhD. Desire to face challenges of solving existing problem. Desire to get intellectual satisfaction by doing creative work in society. Desire for recognition and respect. Government directive Desire to verify facts. Interests that motivate people to undertake research are: People interest. Mode of research findings People state.   Rules followed in research findings Factors affecting the adoption of research findings; Purpose of research should be clearly defined and use common concept. Research procedures should be sufficiently described. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planed to yield good findings. The researcher should report complete frankness flows in procedural design and method of analysis used should be sufficient. The validity of reliability of the data should be checked carefully. Conclusion should be confirmed  to those  justified  by the data and  limited  to those  for which  data provided  enough basis. Greater confidence in research finding is given by the researcher credibility and experience integrity and competition. Quality of a good researcher A good research should be systematic. it should be structured  with  specific  steps  to be undertaken  in accordance  to well defined  set of rules . Research should be logical.  It should be guided with rules of logical reasoning. Research should be empirical. Research should   be related to one or two aspects of real situation. Should be replicable (can be re-produced) research finding should be verified through the conduct o f similar study. Mode of presenting data Presentation of data is thus considered a basis component of policy research   because of the following: Through presentation a researcher can understand the principle that operates behind the finding. It leads to establishment of explanatory concept thus can serve as a guide for future research. A researcher can appreciate his work through its presentation to other interested partier. Prevention of the finding of explanatory research often results in formulation of new hypothesis that set the ground for new study. Technique in presenting advocacy finding Steps in presenting data; The researcher must give  reasonable  explanation  of the relation  which he has find  and must interpreter the like or relationship  interims  of underline  process  and try to find  out the  trend  of uniform  that use the need  to the various  finding for the research. Information collected during the study must be considered because they may prove to be the key factor in understanding the research problem. Consult someone with an insight about the study who is honest and frank to give out good opinion. Precaution in presenting research finding One should know that even if data is properly collected and analyzed wrong presentation may lead to inaccurate A lot of patience  is needed. To obtain this researcher must consider the following Data due to be adequate and credible for conclusion. Data reflect a good representation of the population.

INTRODUCTION Mass media  is a strategic  use of print and electronic  media to promote public debate and promote community  support to change in generating common norms, values, beliefs and policies. It involves advocacy  for better  and improved  health care  education , human  rights etc. the mass media  do sensitize the general  public  on the implication  of certain government  policies ( media bill, taxation , free education)   ROLE OF MEDIA IN ADVOCACY Importance of Mass Media in Education Programmes Without good access to national and community media all public education programmes may be disadvantaged. It is possible to consider programmes that rely entirely on face-to-face education, but even these can be hindered if there is not a supplementary programme of advertising for events and news coverage to increase motivation as well as printed material to “leave behind.” As such, assessment of available media options should be conducted. Media Directories In some countries, media registration may have resulted in a publicly-available directory. In others, NGOs and government media agencies may have collected such information. Or advertising agencies may keep books that give details on media outlets, including their market share and target audiences. Early on, educators may want to develop a “brainstorm” list and subsequently their own directory that analyzes available media outlets in terms appropriate to voter education programming. Criteria they may want to use include: Is the media owned or controlled by the government? If controlled by the government, is it obligated under election law to provide free space or airtime for voter education messages? If privately owned, is the management amenable to running public service announcements, such as voter education messages either free of charge or at a discounted rate? What are the published advertising rates of the outlet? Is the media national or community-based? Is the particular medium capable of preparing its own copy or producing its own spots? What are the policy and the protocol of the particular medium for taking spots or copy prepared by the education programme? In what format must spots or copy prepared by the education programme be presented to the media outlet in question? What is the outlet’s market share, i.e. what is the size of its viewing or listening audience or readership? What are the characteristics of its audience? How is the size or characteristics of the audience affected by date and time and by programming, i.e. what are the most popular shows or are papers read more during the week or at week-ends? How many hours does the outlet broadcast per day? An adequate database will need to be prepared for this information. Because of its importance, educators will also want to cultivate expertise within their own teams in this field and, in addition, develop appropriate contacts amongst outside practitioners. Power Supply and Other Commodities Particularly in transitional settings, educators will want to take note of any shortages or disruptions in the supply of valuable commodes such as electricity, gas, paper or ink. If power is in short supply, it may not make much sense to invest in pricey television commercials. Radio may still be an option, however, as radios can be operated on battery power. In such circumstances, print and direct contact may take on an increasingly important role. Educators will also need to take into consideration how power shortages or interruptions may affect production processes: if service providers do not have an independent and reliable power source very often this will extend the amount of time required for production. If paper or ink is difficult to obtain, then print activities may need to be de-emphasized. Even where these supplies exist, fuel shortages might hinder the ability to deliver and distribute print materials. Thus, educators must assess the availability of key commodities and the impact that these will have on the types and mix of media used. Careful Planning and Assessment Countries with vibrant media infrastructures are essential to the development of democracy. To the extent that voter education can enhance this by careful selection and promotion of media, it will have long-term impact for future programmes. INFORMATION “Mass media” is a deceptively simple term encompassing a countless array of institutions and individuals who differ in purpose, scope, method, and cultural context. Mass media include all forms of information communicated to large groups of people, from a handmade sign to an international news network. There is no standard for how large the audience needs to be before communication becomes “mass” communication. There are also no constraints on the type of information being presented. A car advertisement and a U.N. resolution are both examples of mass media. Because “media” is such a broad term, it will be helpful in this discussion to focus on a limited definition. In general usage, the term has been taken to refer to only “the group of corporate entities, publishers, journalists, and others who constitute the communications industry and profession.” This definition includes both the entertainment and news industries. Another common term, especially in talking about conflict, is “news media.” News media include only the news industry. It is often used interchangeably with “the press” or the group of people who write and report the news. The distinction between news and entertainment can at times be fuzzy, but news is technically facts and interpretation of facts, including editorial opinions, expressed by journalism professionals. Which facts are included, how they are reported, how much interpretation is given, and how much space or time is devoted to a news event is determined by journalists and management and will depend on a variety of factors ranging from the editorial judgment of the reporters and editors, to other news events competing for the same time or space, to corporate policies that reflect management’s biases. Importance Mass communicated media saturate the industrialized world. The television in the living room, the newspaper on the doorstep, the radio in the car, the computer at work, and the fliers in the mailbox are just a few of the media channels daily