March 11, 2023

A cycle is a sequence of events that a project follows These events/stages or phases can be divided into several equally valid ways depending on the executing agencies or parties involved. Theory of project management cycle Stakeholders can define project management as the realization of concepts and goals through efficient, effective, transparent, accountable and responsible administration of any given activity. All stakeholders should be regularly consulted in matters affecting a project to ensure coordination of project activities. Project management cycle implies a process oriented to project management system covering the whole project cycle from project conception to project conclusion. It involves a combination of the various project cycle phases with corresponding management tasks. It is an effective decision making process to ensure certain action occurs at the right time within the life of a project. Project conception At this stage an idea regarding a required intervention in a specific area to address unidentified problem is formed or developed through discussions by local leaders in a community and specialists as needs bases issues and crystallized into a proposal. The projects can therefore be conceived based on market demand, resource availability and opportunity to make profitable used of available resources, technology, natural calamity and political consideration Project identification This stage refers to the process where all potential projects arising from ideas crystallized in the 1st stage above are determined. An individual or communication representative to an agency capable of identifying an institution to provide the necessary support to realize the expectation may submit the information in the proposal for project conception. The type of information provided at this stage is usually general and descriptive Project preparation This stage involves a more thorough exercise of collecting data and information on the proposed project. At this stage of the cycle, the objective of the project is defined and alternative solutions described. The project preparation contains the design of a set of operational proposal i.e. technically, financially and economically feasible. The decision is made on the scope of the project on location, size, site etc  Project appraisal This involves a further analysis of the proposed project. At this stage a critical review of the proposal is undertaken. The systematic and comprehensive review is usually undertaken by an independent team of experts in consultation with the stakeholders of the project. This provides an opportunity to re-examine every aspect of the project plan to assess whether the proposal is justified before large sums of money are committed. They appraisal may also change the project plan and develop a new plan. Project selection After appraisal, a viable or a suitable project proposal is chosen for implementation based on the priorities of the stakeholders and the available resources. For instance treasury may impose ceiling on ministries with a big portfolio of investment calling for prioritization of core and lower priority project.  Negotiation and financing Once the project to be implemented is agreed upon for donor funded projects, discussions are held on funding and associated aspect of funding i.e. conditionality for grants, repayment period and interest rates if loans are borrowed. They must also discuss the flow of funds, contributions from stakeholders and beneficiaries and if there is any co-financing or not. These results in an agreement document of the project that binds all the parties involved during the implementation of a project. Planning for implementation This is the stage either before actual implementation or before the start of a new implementation phase of the project. The exercise is conducted at the level of a project and involves implementers, the funding agency or all stakeholders. The exercise involves enabling the project management to address the important implementation issues i.e. project objectives, financial arrangement, the scope of the project, the implementation schedule etc given the overall resource structure and the working evaluation. The likelihood of further changes occurring either in design or in physical and policy evaluation to affect the project is also discussed during the exercise, the team should clearly define the objectives and the hierarchy of objectives.  Implementation stage This is a crucial stage of any project since the objective of the earlier effort in the stage above was to have project to be undertaken. At this stage activities of the project are actually carried out and funds are disbursed to facilitate the activities. The management should ensure that the project is carried out according to design. However, depending on the physical and policy evaluation, this may be needed for responsibility in response to ground. Monitoring of progress and reporting therefore becomes crucial. Implementation is a process of refinement or learning from experience and can actually be considered as a “min cycle” within the larger project. The implementation forms the life of a project. The investment period refers to when major project investments are undertaken and it could take 1-3 years depending on the nature of the project from the time it is terminated. Monitoring and reporting This should be an ongoing activity during implementation. The beneficiaries, through implementing staff, the supervising staff and the project management staff can carry out the monitoring. The aim should be to ensure that the activities of the project are being undertaken on schedule to facilitate implementation as specified in project design. Any constraints in operationalizing the design can quickly be detected and corrective action taken. This would enable the management to be proactive rather than being re-active in correcting mistakes during implementation. Evaluation This state involves a systematic review or examination of success and failure in the project experience during the project life in order to learn how to plan better. This implies that evaluation is a continuous exercise during the project life and is much related to project monitoring. Evaluation can also be undertaken when the project is at the first step in a re-planning effort. Careful evaluation is also undertaken before any follow up project. Evaluation can be done internally or by external reviewers. Some organizations have a monitoring and evaluation unit. The main aim of evaluation is to

Project Is any human activity that achieves a clear objective against a specified time? A project is a set of related tasks that are coordinated to achieve a specific objective in a given time limit and with uniqueness in relation to achieving a specific objective, accomplishing a definite role within a time limit and can be well coordinated alongside involving many people or a team. According to W.B, the term project is a concept that broadly means the use of resources for a specific productive purpose. According to W.B, a project is seen as an investment; however, a project is for a piece of work i.e. one whole thing. In liberal understanding of a project is that it is a discrete of investment policy, measures and other actions designed to achieve a specific development objective or a set of objectives within a designated period. Project management is a special approach that encompasses all the peculiarities ensuring the success of the project. These peculiarities ensure that the project is completed within a stipulated time and that its performance satisfies its intended purpose. Programme Is a set of related projects. A project program means a list of activities for a project showing the dates for starting and finishing them can also be called a schedule. Intervention Is the process of involving man, money and materials in a situation in order to improve or help it.   The intervention process involves two parties:- Interventional party – individuals involved in improving the situation into a more desired status. Target party – direct beneficiaries of the activities of the project Development – It is a process of improving the well being of people’s living Standards in terms of education, health and related human potentiality. It should be holistic and multi-dimensional involving the participation of the people who should own the project themselves. Development involves activities and programs that help people more from low to higher standards of living as their needs are met satisfactorily. Management It is the art of performing a task, maintaining its integrity and ensuring that It is done and performed as desired within time, cost, budget fixed. Project management therefore foresees and predicts dangers and problems and plan, organize and control activities so that projects are completed as successfully as possible. Target Are the targeted results and targeted beneficiary in a project. Any project aims at affecting a particular people with its specific results aimed to solve a group’s problem. It is important to note that a project may target a particular group in a community e.g women group. Problems      Anything that can hinder Demand        Great desire to possess something Need              It is a desire to acquire something necessary Should have evaluation that are used to build on future projects Characteristics of a Good Project Is should have a time frame It should have a fixed set of objectives that achieved the project seam to exist. It should be flexible to allow changes that may not have an impact It should be result oriented/productive i.e. it should aim at binging a change in the society It requires team work i.e. the team should consist of members belonging to the different disciplines e.g in construction engineers, accountants, social scientists are required. It should be made to the orders of the customers’ i.e. requirements and control within a project must be executed as given by the customers. It should be well planned (conceived) to reduce risks and uncertainties It should be carried out through a series of interdependent task i.e. a number of repetitive tasks that needs to be accomplished in a certain sequence in order to achieve the project objective. The execution of the project must be controlled to ensure that the desired results are achieved (quality) The project must be completed within a given budget. It should have activities that are tailored around a clear purpose Should be consistence with the customs of the community Types of projects In recent years, more and more activities have been tackled on a project basis. Project teams and project management have become common in most organizations. The basic approaches to project management remain the same regardless of the type of project being considered. You may find it useful to consider projects in relation to a number of classifications Engineering and construction These projects are concerned with producing a clear physical output i.e. roads, bridges, buildings etc The requirement of a project team is well defined in terms of skills and background as well as the same procedures that need. Most of the problems that may confront the project team are likely to have occurred before; therefore their solutions may be based upon experiences. Introduction of new systems These projects would include computerization projects and introduction of new systems and procedures including financial systems. The nature and constitution of a project team may vary with the subject of the project. This is because different skills may be required and different end users may be involved. Major projects involving a system analysis may incorporate clearly defined procedures within an organization.  Responding to deadlines and change An example of responding to a deadline is the preparation of an annual report by a specified date. An increasing number of projects are concerned with designing organizational or environmental changes involving developing new products and services.  Other types of projects include:- Normal projects In this case adequate time is allowed in implementation. All the phases are allowed to take the time that they should normally take. This type of project requires minimum capital cost and no sacrifice in terms of quality. Crush projects Here, additional capital costs are incurred to gain time. Maximum overlap of phases is encouraged and compromised in terms of quality; savings in time is normally achieved through procurement and construction where time is bought from vendors and constructors by paying them extra money. Disaster project Anything needed to gain time is allowed in this project. Quality, short of failure is accepted around the dock work

INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT  – Click to view PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE  – Click to view PROJECT IDENTIFICATION  – Click to view PROJECT PLANNING AND DESIGNING  – Click to view PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT – Click to view PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION  – Click to view PROJECT MONITORING  – Click to view PROJECT EVALUATION  – Click to view PROJECT TERMINATION – Click to view PROJECT SUSTAINABILITY  – Click to view REPORT WRITING KNEC NOTES – Click to view COMMUNICATION PARTICIPATION IN PROJECT MANAGEMENT – Click to view

Sub-topic: Meaning of terms Guidance Means advising, directing, helping or steering an individual in the right direction. It is the presentation of information/knowledge to a client or groups of clients in an organized way. Counseling It is the process a process of helping somebody get over a problem. It is a process of empowerment that gives people greater control over their lives. It is a way of relating and responding to another person so that the person is helped to explore his or her thoughts, feelings and behaviour to reach a clearer self-understanding. It also helps a person to find and use their strengths so that they cope more efficiently with life by making appropriate choices. Sub-topic: Distinction between guidance and counseling Guidance is more public involving many people while counselling is confidential and private. Guidance is preventative while counselling is curative. Guidance is more general and does not require much skill while counselling requires specific skills and techniques. Guidance focuses on future issues and problems while counselling focuses on immediate problems. Guidance is more structured and closed ended while counselling is less structured and more open ended. Guidance is initiated by a guidance specialist while counselling is initiated by a counselee/client.  Guidance is more cognitive dealing with transmission of information while counselling is more effective dealing with feelings, emotions and attitudes. Sub-topic: Types of guidance and counseling Individual counselling Group counselling Individual Counselling It Is when the counsellor and the counselee meet on a one to one basis. It is used when the needs come from the client. Some of the issues that are dealt with in individual counselling are personal and sometime difficult to deal with e.g. grief, anxiety, disorder, depression, phobia etc. Benefits of Individual Counselling It provides the client with a situation of complete confidentiality. There is an atmosphere of mutual trust and confidence. It is helpful to clients who have problems that emanate from themselves. It caters for individuals learning differences especially for clients whose learning capacity has to be based on the state of the mind. It is beneficial to clients who may find it difficult to share information when other people are present either because they are shy or feel that they are the only ones experiencing the problems. Group Counselling Counselling can be defined as a special relationship in which a client feels safe to discuss what really worries and upsets them to define new behaviours, to practice essential interpersonal skills and to implement new behaviour with the help of the counsellor. It can be used in cases like sexual abuse, abortion, family conflict and marital problems. Benefits/Advantages of Group Counselling Members are able to trust oneself and others. Members are able to achieve self-knowledge and be able to develop their unique characteristics. Saves time and money since the counsellor has contact with more client at the same time. Members are able to recognize the commonalities of their problems and needs and be able to develop a sense of universality. Clients support other members of the group. It makes one learn how to confront others with care, concern, honesty and directness. Sub-topic: Situations that require guidance and counseling Child abuse Divorce Poor performance in class Drug abuse Sexual abuse Career choice Sub-topic: Qualities of a good counselor 1. Knowledgeable An effective counsellor has to be knowledgeable in human growth and development. This enables the client to be helped in case issues have originated from the development stages like pre-school, pre-teens, adolescence, young adulthood, midlife or the aged. 2. Empathetic The counsellor should have the ability to feel with the client without belittling their feelings. 3. Good role model A counsellor should practice what he or she confesses. 4. A good listener This will enable the counsellor to hear exactly what is being said verbally as well as observe the messages being communicated through non-verbal cues such as gestures and other body languages. Non-judgemental/ Unconditional positive regard Means a counsellor accepting clients unconditionally and seeing them as human beings and respect the fact that clients also make their own decisions. Respectful Should be able to respect a client’s values and beliefs but not necessarily endorsing or accepting the practices if they are contrary to the views of the counsellor. A client’s solutions to his/her issues should be respected by the counsellor as long as they are not causing any danger to the client’s life or others. Use a variety of counselling techniques This will depend on the situation and the nature of the specific problem and the client. The counsellor should therefore identify what methods works for a specific individual with a specific problem. Have a sense of humour This will help in diffusing tension, anxiety and uncertainties and will also assist in putting the client at ease. Accommodating Should allow clients to express their feelings in whichever way they like e.g. cry, maintain silence, shout, yell or use angry words. Ability to stay calm and composed They should stay calm even if the situation sounds unbelievable. They should desist from either expressing shock verbally or non-verbally. Sub-topic: Basic skills and procedures in guidance and counseling Basic Skills in Guidance and counselling Listening It is the process of hearing the other person. During listening it is important to show that the counselor is listening through the ‘minimal prompts’ such as head nods, yes mm, etc. They indicate that ‘I am with you’. Overuse of these should be avoided. Behavioral aspects of listening – (SOLER) S – Sit squarely O – Openness L – Leaning E – Eye contact R – Relax. Aspects of listening: Linguistic aspect – words, phrases, figures of speech Paralinguistic aspect – timing, volume, tone pitch, ‘ums” and‘errs’, fluency  Non-verbal aspects: Facial expression, gestures, touch, body position, and proximity to the counselor, body movement and eye contact. Attending and showing receptiveness: It is the act of truly focusing on the other person. It involves consciously making ourselves aware of what the other person is saying and the what they

Sub-topic: Meaning of the terms personality and personality development Personality- Refers to the sum total of the characteristics or traits of an individual. Personality can be public, that is expressing features that can be seen, for example, attitude. It can also be private, that is, it can be hidden. This includes experiences that cannot be seen. Broadly speaking, personality is used to describe; Temperament e.g. even tempered or ill-tempered. Physical praise e.g. complexion, weight and height. Can be used to describe intelligence e.g. brilliant, average etc. Moral value e.g. good morals, bad morals etc. Characteristics of Personality It involves behaviours as well as thoughts. It is dynamic, that is it grows and develops as the individual develops and it depends on the environment. It includes overt (what can be seen) and covert (what can’t be seen). Personality is unique. Personality refers to relatively stable qualities of an individual. Personality is greatly influenced by social interaction. Types of Personality It can be described in terms of extroversion, introversion and ambiversion. 1. Extroverts These are individuals who are sociable, outgoing and prefer occupations in which they work directly with other people. They like and seek company of others in times of stress. They value association with others. 2. Introverts These individuals are shy and tend to be alone and work alone. They tend to withdraw from others particularly in times of emotional stress or conflict. They enjoy social interaction but also enjoy solitary activities that is, they move away from others. 3. Ambiverts These are people who neither talk too much nor too little. Factors Influencing Personality Development 1. Heredity Genes determine hereditary characteristics that can’t be changed e.g. intelligence. 2. Environment The environment that influences the personality development of an individual mainly comprises the home and the school. Home A child is born in a family which is a social set-up. The home plays a significant role in the development of attitude such as dislikes or emotional habits. All these have profound effects on personality in the following ways; Family with high moral values tend to be more independent and well-adjusted than those from families with low moral values. Children from homes which experience conflict are deprived of a sense of security. They may grow without concern for others. School The child spends a significant part of his/her life in school where habits or attitudes already acquired at home are reinforced. In the school environment, the teacher acts as a substitute for the parents. The teacher’s behaviour is important because it presents a model for the child to emulate. 3. Socio-cultural Personality are modelled by beliefs, customs, rituals, religious and other forms of training experiences through the process of learning or socialization by which children acquire values, customs and beliefs of their culture. Sub-topic: Theories of personality development Psycho-analytic theory according to Sigmund Freud This theory is based on the fact that personality is motivated by inner forces about which individuals have little awareness and over which they have no control. Sigmund Freud argued that much of our behaviour is motivated by the unconscious, a part of the personality. Freud viewed that personalities of people develop through conflict between their primary drives (sex and aggression) and social pressure; and early childhood experiences are extremely important in the development of personality. Psycho-social theory according to Eric Erickson According to Erikson each stage involves a “crisis” in personality – that is important at that time and will remain an issue to some degree throughout the rest of life. In each stage there is the balancing of a positive tendency and a corresponding negative one. Initiative vs. guilt is a conflict children face between their urge to form and carry out goals. When they fail to reach their goals, they feel guilty. The sense of right and wrong morality emerges as a result of identification with the parents. Children can resolve this crisis to acquire the virtue of purpose. Erikson defines it as the courage to envisage and pursue valued goals. Children can then develop into adults who combine spontaneous enjoyment of life with a sense of responsibility. Those who cannot resolve this crisis may become repressed. If initiative dominates, they must continue to believe. Erikson’s last stage is ego-integrity. The virtue of this stage is wisdom. As Erikson mentioned different stages of human development, crisis is very typical of each stage and resolution of it is a must. Resolution requires balancing a positive trait and a corresponding negative trait. Both are required for healthy development. If either of the two predominates, there will be imbalance and the conflict remains. Hence, the development of ego suffers. Sub-topic: Effects of gender responsiveness on personality development Sub-topic: Personality disorders This refers to emotional and behavioural problems of individuals. Types of personality disorders Characteristics of people with personality disorders They are fearful and lack confidence or independence. Some cry uncontrollably and unnecessarily. They are uncooperative and defy orders. Some are unsympathetic and lack warmth. They are disruptive and restless. They engage in immoral behaviours e.g. stealing, cheating etc. Causes of personality disorders Biological disorders e.g. hereditary Disease and illness Frustration and stress Drug and substance abuse Abnormal birth Occurrence of disaster Accidents that lead to injury on the brain

Sub-topic: Stages of human growth and development Human life begins at conception, which occurs when a sperm cell unites with an egg from a female and forms a single cell called a zygote. After conception the growth and development of the human being proceeds as a result of cell division. There are two processes of cell division: – Mitosis – is the process of cell division in which a single body (somatic) cell divides into two exactly equal parts. Each of the parts has exactly the same 23 pairs of chromosomes as in the original cell. Meiosis – is the process of cell division that occurs during the production of sex or germ cells (ova and sperm). During this process each chromosome splits and separates so   that   the   resulting   ovum   or   sperm   contains   only   23   single chromosomes. The period between conception and birth is referred to as the prenatal period. Human growth and development occurs most rapidly during this period. Prenatal development is divided into three stages: – Pre-natal stage 1. Germinal/pre-embryonic period (conception -14 days) This period is characterized by rapid cell division and ends when the zygote implants itself in the walls  of the uterus. 2. Embryonic During this stage, cell differentiation occurs in which the cells of the blastocyst differentiate themselves into three layers. This is followed by organ genesis in which different organs of the body begin to form. Other developments during this period are the formation of the amniotic sac – which is filled by amniotic fluid. The placenta is also formed through which the embryo gets its nutrients during pregnancy. By the 8th week, the embryo has rudimentary eyes, ears, nose, mouth, liver, heart, and webbed fingers. This period is very critical for development. This is because: The embryo is most susceptible to influences of teratogens – viruses, chemicals, drugs and radiation. If it is exposed to any of these, it is most likely that the embryo will have abnormalities of the organs of the body, which are in the process of being formed. Most miscarriages occur at this period. Embryo detaches from the wall and is expelled. Foetal stage (9-40 weeks) During this period, the major systems begin to function.  There is also refining and improving of what is already formed. There is a major growth and development of the brain and the nervous system during the last three months of prenatal development. The 28th week marks the point of viability, which is the point at which survival outside the uterus may be possible. The baby is born approximately 266 days after conception or 280 days from the onset of the last period.  FACTORS AFFECTING PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT Each year some babies are born with birth defects that range from gross anomalies that may lead to sudden death to minimal physical or mental defects. About 7% of children are born with a congenital defect. These defects may be caused by the following factors: – Abnormal genes and chromosomes. Harmful conditions in the womb. Abnormalities during the birth process. Abnormal genes and chromosomes Genetic abnormalities: – genetic abnormalities result from mutations – that is, a change in the chemical structure or arrangement of one or more genes that has the effect of producing a new phenotype. Some conditions that may result from this are: – 1. Cystic fibrosis –  occurs in about 1 in 1000 births.  The child lacks an enzyme that prevents mucus from obstructing the lungs and the digestive system. Many who inherit this problem die in childhood or adolescence. 2. Muscular dystrophy (MD) – it attacks the muscles. As the disease progresses, the individual starts showing slurred speech, becomes unable to walk, and may gradually lose most of the motor capabilities. 3. Phenylketonuria (PKU) – the child lacks an enzyme to digest foods that contain the amino acid phenylalanine (including milk). If not detected and the child placed on a diet of milk substitute, phenylpyruvic acid will accumulate in the body and attacks the developing nervous system. Long term effects of PKU are hyperactivity and severe mental retardation. 4. Tay-sachs disease is a degenerative disease of the nervous system that kills the victim by the 3rd birthday. 5. Hemophilia (bleeder’s disease) – the child lacks a substance that causes the blood to clot and can bleed to death if cut. Is rare in females. 6. Diabetes –  an inherited condition in which the individual is unable to metabolize sugar properly because the body does not produce insulin. Can be controlled by taking insulin and restricting one’s diet. Chromosomal abnormalities: – usually occur during the process of cell division after conception (meiosis and mitosis).  May be caused by non-separation of chromosomes, deletion of chromosomes which may lead to loss of genes, and translocation of chromosomes i.e. deleting and attaching themselves to the wrong ones that is uneven segregation of chromosomes. Some conditions that they result include: – Turner’s syndrome – XO – the person is female but is short, mentally retarded and sterile. Klinefelter’s syndrome – XXY – a male with male external organs but with female body contours and also sterile. Downes syndrome (mongolism) – the 21st chromosome does not separate so the zygote ends up having two no.21 chromosomes (trisomy 21). The child is mentally retarded and may have congenital eyes, ear, and heart defects; sloping forehead, protruding tongue, short stubby limbs, a slightly flattened nose, a distinctive fold to the eyelids that gives their eyes an oriental appearance. N.B: The probability of having a child with Downes syndrome and Klinefelter’s syndrome increases dramatically if the mother is over 35 years. These defects can be detected in the first three months of pregnancy through a test called amniocentesis. Post-natal stage Infancy (0-2 years) Early childhood (2-6 years) Late childhood (6-12 years) Adolescence (12-18 years) Changes that take place in each of human growth and development Physical Mental/cognitive Social Emotional Language Challenges related to specific stages of human growth and development

Sub-topic: Aspects of human growth and development Physical/psychomotor Physical development refers to the physical changes in the size, structure and proportion of the parts of the body that take place at the moment of conception. Directly physical development determines what children can do at a particular age. Indirectly, it influences their attitude toward self and others. As the child grows physically, the range of his experiences increases. The increase in his experience contributes to the developments in cognitive, emotional, social and moral areas. Studies show that growth comes in cycles. The term ‘cycles’ means that physical growth does not occur at regular rate rather in periods or phases, sometimes rapidly and sometimes slowly. During the early childhood years, growth is slow. Height and weight increase at the lower rate during this period. During early childhood all the parts of the child’s body grow, but at different rates. During early childhood, the forehead area develops faster than the lower part of the face. This is due to rapid growth of the brain. The trunk grows longer and broader in the early years of childhood. Arms – grow much longer between babyhood and age 6. Arms are thin and straight because the muscles grow at a very slow rate. Legs grow at a slower rate than the arms. Teeth – most of the baby teeth have cut through the germs shortly after babyhood ends. The baby teeth will be fall between 5 and 7. The process of loosing baby teeth and replacing them with permanent teeth goes on until the child is 12 or 13 years. Bones – bone development consists of growth in bore size, change in the number of bones, and change in their composition. Bone development is most rapid during the first years of life, then relatively slow up to the time of puberty and one again more rapid. Muscles and Fat – Fatty tissues develop faster than muscle tissue during early childhood. Children who eat too much carbohydrates and too little protein will develop too many fat cells. Nervous System – At birth brain weight is one-eighth of total weight, at 10 years, one-eighteenth, at 15 years, one-thirtieth, and a maturity one fortieth.   Sex Differences At birth girls tend to be shorter than boys. Boys are generally taller than girls at all ages except 10, 11 and 12 years as girls tend to reach puberty earlier. Boys tend to be heavier than girl right through the first nine years. Between ten to fourteen years the girls have a tending to shoot ahead. Factors Affecting Physical Development: Heredity and environment are the two main factors that affect physical development. The environment factors include prenatal and birth conditions, socio-economic status, nutrition, physical exercises etc. Physical development can be defined as the series of anatomic and physiologic changes taking place between the beginning of pre-natal life and senility. The child begins to assume the body proportions for an adult. Height: Generally after two and half years the child gains 2-2.5 inches every year up to 12 years. Approximately the height of male child becomes 45 inches and female 43 inches. Weight: There is steady increase in weight, average growth per year 5 to 6 pounds. Legs growth is rapid and represent about half of ones total height The head is slow in growth but the trunk grows a little faster. Towards puberty girls are a bit lighter and shorter. At this age muscle develops at rapid speed.   Motor development: Motor development means the development of control over bodily movements through the co-ordinated activity of the nerve centres, the nerves and the muscles. Motor development is of greater significance for the total development of the child. Good Health which is vital to the child’s development and happiness is partly dependent on exercise. Emotional maturity: Once the child develops his motor skills adequately he starts participating in team games and sports and learn to control his emotions, show sportsmanship etc. Independence: Motor development gives the child a sense of independence and with it a feeling of security since he can learn to tackle things on his own. Self-Entertainment: Motor control enables children to engage in activities which give them enjoyment even in the absence of playmates. Socialization: Good motor development contributes to the child’s acceptance and provides opportunities to learn social skills. Self-Concept: Motor control leads to feelings of physical security, which are soon translated in to psychological security. Gross and Finer Motor Skills: Motor skills can be roughly divided into two main types. The gross muscular skills like jumping, hopping, running, lifting and climbing. The finer muscular skills like drawing, painting and writing. Importance of Motor Development Stimulates intellectual growth and creativity Encourages socialization, independence, and self-confidence. Promotes good mental health Strengthens self-concept   Factors Affecting Physical and Motor Development Heredity — determines the rate of growth and maturation, bone age, height etc. Nutrition – should be balanced and sufficient otherwise will lead to stunted growth, Kwashiorkor, rickets, marasmus obesity etc. Diseases – prolonged illness interferes with steady growth Child rearing practices- practice, stimulation Stress – affects hormonal secretions causing physical dwarfism. Implications For proper physical and motor development, the following factors need to be considered: Importance of maturation Importance of individual differences Importance of adequate and balanced diet Medical attention and immunization Hygienic conditions Provision of a rich environment Encouragement of play and manipulation of objects. Cognitive/mental Development The mental development include the development of intellectual and mental capabilities like sensation, perception, concept formation, attention and interest, development of imagination, memory and problem solving ability and other mental abilities. The teacher’s duty is to assist the child in the development of his abilities. Development of these abilities is the aim of our education. Therefore, mental development means development of mental and intellectual capabilities, which help an individual to adjust his behaviour to the ever-changing environmental conditions or to complete a task that needs complex cognitive capabilities. Intellectual abilities are interrelated, so, the overall development of this abilities can

Development refers to growth, adaptation, and change that occur over the course of a lifetime. Through the process of development, we have all changed significantly in many different ways. Changes in one’s physical make-up (physical development) may be the most apparent form of development. People also develop in their ability to form and use language (language development) interact with other (social development) and process information and make meaning from experiences (cognitive development). Different theories have been evolved by psychologists which will identify the significance of each development. Meaning of the term theory A theory is a statement or a set of statements that try to explain a given phenomenon based on scientific evidence. A theory may be true in a number of situations but there is no evidence to prove that it is always true. Theories are the result of extensive research and their purpose is to guide further research. In other words, a researcher may base his own research on a theory developed by a previous researcher to prove or disapprove the previous findings. Sub-topic: Cognitive theory according to Jean Piaget Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget is well known for this theory which describes how humans gather and organize information and how this process changes developmentally. Basic Cognitive Concepts  Piaget identified four concepts, which he used to explain how and why cognitive development occurs. These include schema, assimilation, accommodation and equilibration. (1) Schema: Piaget used the term schema to refer to the cognitive structures by which individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their environment. Piaget suggested that the mind has mental structures or schemata, just as the body has physical structures. Piaget suggested that when an organism encounters stimulation or a new experience, and relies on its structures to assist in that adaptation. Thus, just as the human body is “organized’ into various structures such as the stomach, kidneys etc., which assist in ongoing adaptation, so too does the mind have structures or ways of organized experiences, which facilitate adaptation to the experiences. (2) Assimilation: This is a process of integrating new perceptual, motor or conceptual material or experiences into existing schemata. Assimilation refers to connecting new material to existing knowledge. For example, a child may watch a nature film and thus discover new animals to add to existing groups of animals she or he has already stored in memory. (3) Accommodation: This refers to the process of creating a new schema.  When the process of assimilation is not possible because there are no schemata into which to fit new data or the characteristics of an existing schema, a new schema will have to be developed in order to adopt to these new and unique experience. (4)Equilibration: Equilibrium is a state of balance between assimilation and accommodation. Piaget believed that one of  the most effective methods for motivating a child was to set up a state of  cognitive disequilibrium in which the child is thrown into “cognitive conflict” when he expects something to happen in a certain way and it does not. Piaget’s Stages to Cognitive Development According to Piaget, cognitive development occurs as the child passes through four dissimilar and qualitatively different stages: the sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operation and formal operational stages. 1. The Sensorimotor Period Piaget’s first stage of intellectual development, in which the child moves from the reflective activities of reaching, grasping and sucking to more highly organized forms of activity. The infant begins to understand that there is a difference between him/herself and the rest of the world and that the sensory experiences received are in fact suggestive of the existence to some form of “objects” or “events” that exist outside of themselves. This development of object permanence expands the infant’s view of the world beyond that which is immediately and directly experienced. Thus, the infant may begin to search for objects that are out of sight. During the period, the infant develops object permanence, the realization that objects exist even if they are out of sight. Another milestone of the sensory-motor period is the development of the beginnings of problem-solving ability. While at first this is based largely on trial and error, by the end of the period, approaches to problem solving are planned. 2. The Pre-operational period  The stage is Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, in which the lack of rational operations forces children to make decisions based on their perceptions. The major development during the pre-operational period is the ability to represent object and events or to use symbolic functions. Between the ages of two and seven, the mental abilities come to develop fully as advances in language development and imagination enable the child to think and play in new ways. In addition to symbolic functions the pre-operational period is characterized by several unique features. Egocentrism           That is, children cannot put themselves in someone else’s perspective. E.g a four year old who can label own right hand and left hand, but cannot identify the right and left hands of a friend. By age six, children exhibit, less egocentrism than at age three. Centration Another characteristic of pre-operational thought is centration or concentration as only one aspect of an object or activity, usually the aspect that is perceptually dominant. For instance, a child of four or five is presented with two rows of objects in which one row contains nine objects and a second but longer row, contain seven objects. The preoperational child will typically select the longer row as having more objects even though the child knows that nine is more than seven. 3. Inability to reverse operation  A third feature of pre-operational thought is inability to reverse one’s thinking. Understanding subtraction is a prime example of this feature. Pre-schoolers may have learned that 1+1=2 but cannot comprehend that 2-1=1 or ponder the case of the preoperational child who is presented with two identical glasses, both short and fat in shape. Then water from one of the glasses is poured into a tall thin glass. The child is then asked if

Sub-topic: Meaning of psychology                                                                                                                 The word Psychology is derived from two Greek words Psyche and Logus. ‘Psyche’ means soul, ‘logus’ means science. Psychology is often defined as the study of the mind and behaviour. It is a very broad topic that is often broken down into a number of different branches of psychology. Each branch is centred on a specific subfield within psychology. Some psychologists study the functions of the brain and their influence on behaviour. Others explore how personality develops and changes over the course of life. Still other psychologists are interested in exploring how psychology can improve life in the workplace. Sub-topic: Branches of psychology Abnormal Psychology: This branch of psychology seeks to identify, understand, and treat behavioural, thought, and emotional patterns that are considered abnormal and maladaptive. There are different ways of defining what is normal and what is not. In statistical terms, things that are considered abnormal are those that lie outside of what the majority of people experience. Abnormality can also be defined in terms of functioning. Behaviours that are considered maladaptive and make it difficult to function normally in daily life are often considered abnormal. Behavioural Psychology:  Also known as behaviourism, this area of psychology is devoted to the study of observable behaviours and how learning takes place via conditioning processes. Important behavioural concepts include classical conditioning, which involves learning through associations, and operant conditioning, which involves learning as a result of consequences. Biological Psychology: This branch of psychology focuses on how biological influences, specifically the brain and nervous system, influence the human mind and behaviour. Bio-psychologists often study how brain injury and illness impact normal psychological functioning. This area of psychology also involves using imaging tools such as MRI and PET scans to look at the brain to determine which areas are activated when particular tasks are performed. Clinical Psychology: This field is known as one of the single largest areas of employment within psychology. Clinical psychologists typically work directly in mental health treatment and work with patients who experience some form of mental illness, psychological distress, or emotional disturbance. Cognitive Psychology: This branch of psychology is concerned with looking at mental processes that underlie behaviour including thinking, perception, problem-solving, decision-making, memory, and attention. Community Psychology: This field of psychology is devoted to understanding the individual’s relationship with his or her community as well as how that community fits in with the larger society. Consumer Psychology: This field of psychology centres on using psychological principles to understanding consumer behaviour. Professionals who work in this branch of psychology utilize their knowledge to help businesses understand what motivates consumers to buy products and services. Counseling Psychology: Like clinical psychology, this field is devoted to the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental health issues. This branch of psychology takes a special focus on functioning in areas related to social, emotional, family, vocational and developmental well-being. Criminal Psychology: This branch focuses on understanding all aspects and influences of criminal behaviour, including the myriad factors that contribute to criminal actions. Professionals who work in this field study the thoughts, intentions, motivations, emotions, and behaviours of people who commit crimes. Those who work in this field are often called to help with criminal investigations and to testify in criminal cases. Developmental Psychology: The focus of this branch of psychology is centred on the study of development over the entire course of life. This includes physical, emotional, social, and cognitive growth from the earliest days of infancy into old age. Professionals who work in this field often specialize in working with a particular population such as young children, adolescents, or older adults. Educational Psychology: This branch of psychology is concerned with the process of learning. It often involves looking at both behavioural and cognitive methods of learning as well as the motivational, intellectual, and societal factors that impact the learning process. Environmental Psychology: This area of psychology is about understanding how humans interact with their environments. This could include both natural settings as well as man-made environments. Professionals who work in this field are often concerned with helping people to interact better with their environment and creating spaces that are safe and more conducive to well-being. Forensic Psychology: This area of psychology utilizes understanding of the human mind and behaviour and applies it to the field of law. Forensic psychologists often perform tasks such as conducting child custody evaluations, assessing competency to stand trial, and testifying in criminal and civil cases. Health Psychology: This is an area of psychology devoted to understanding the psychological and behavioural influences that impact health and well-being. Health psychologist understand that well-being is influenced by both biological factors as well as social and emotional factors. Professionals who work in this field utilize their knowledge to help both individual patients improve their health and also work in public health programs to improve the health and wellness of communities. Humanistic Psychology: This branch of psychology emerged during the 1950s as a response to psychoanalysis and behaviourism. Humanistic psychology you take the approach that all people are inherently good. This field of psychology takes a more holistic approach and focuses on helping people fulfil their individual potential and achieve self-actualization. Military Psychology: This branch of psychology is devoted to using psychological principles in military settings. Some professionals who work in this field treat soldiers who have served in the military, while others conduct research design to help improve military operations and increase the chances of success in combat settings. Personality Psychology: This is large area of psychology interested in the development of personality. Researchers in this field are interested in understanding the many forces that influence how personality develops and is expressed. They’re also interested in learning more about how personality changes over the course of life. Psychoanalysis: This area is one of the oldest branches of psychology. It grew out of the work of the famed psychiatrist Sigmund Freud, Who believed that people were influenced by unconscious forces. Freud believed that by bringing these unconscious motivations

Meaning of terms Growth Growth means increase and enlargement of the body or some parts of the body e.g. body has become heavier and larger etc. Thus growth is a change in the organism which can be observed and measured in quantitative term. It generally refers to increase in size, length, height and weight. Growth is one of the components of the developmental process. Growth rates defer in body parts e.g. people differ in their physiques Development Development means a progressive series of changes that occur in an orderly and predictable pattern as a result of maturation and experience. Development can be observed and to a certain extent it can be measured and evaluated. Thus development is achieved through the process of growth, maturation and learning. Characteristics of Growth Hereditary factor is the cause. Physical factors play a dominant role. Expansion in height and weight is its obvious result. It is quantitative, additive and enhancive. Growth stops at a particular point of life. Growth need not necessarily cause development in all the cases. Rate of growth is distinct and unique. Individual difference in growth is apparent and obvious.   Characteristics of Development Development is a result of experience and maturation. It is a continuous process. It does not end at puberty. It increases the intellectual, moral and social qualities. It is predictable and the environment plays a central role. 6. Learning is a part of development. It is difficult to measure in quantitative measures. Mental development can occur even without physical growth.   Human Growth and development This refers to the physical, mental, social and psychological changes that occurs in an individual from the time of fertilization to conception until death.   Sub-topic: Key concepts in human growth and development Perception – is defined as the recognition and interpretation of sensory information. It also includes how people respond to that information. It’s a process where we take in sensory information from our environment and use that information in order to interact with our environment. Motivation – is an internal process that makes a person move towards a goal. It is the reason for people’s actions, desires and needs. It is also what causes a person to want to repeat a behaviour. Attitude –  a favourable or unfavourable evaluative reaction toward something or someone, exhibited in ones beliefs, feelings, or intended behaviour. Maturation – refers to the progressive characteristic of biological growth and development. Readiness – means that children must mature to a certain point before they can progress to new skills. Sub-topic: Differences between Growth and Development Growth is quantitative and it shows an increase in size, weight and height while development is both quantitative and qualitative. Growth relates to physical and biological aspects while development relates to an increase in the functional ability of an individual. Growth is directional while development is sequential and progressive. Growth stops after the peak maturational level while development is a lifelong process. Growth can be objectively measured and exactly measured, however, development cannot be measured easily. Yet keen and continuous observation could reveal developmental levels. Motor and physical domain plays a dominant role in growth, while cognitive and affective domains play a vital role development. Growth is not affected by learning whereas learning and experience has a lot of impact on development. Growth is automatic in the sense that it does not require much effort while development requires constant, continuous and guided efforts. Growth may or may not lead to development while development includes mental, emotional, moral aspects. Though there exists many differences between growth and development, they are interrelated, intertwined, complementary and not contradictory. Similarities between Growth and Development Both of them happen but the individual himself cannot notice. Both are correlated and one is dependent on the other. Both are continuous from the time of conception up to time of death. Both of them have principles that apply at different stages. Both of them are sequential, that is, all follow a predetermined pattern where one activity must only come after another. Both of them are progressive whereby growth comes with age and development with effort. Sub-topic: Principles of Human Growth and Development Although there are individual differences in children’s personalities, activity levels, and timing of developmental milestones, such as ages and stages, the principles and characteristics of development are universal patterns. 1. Development Involves Change The human being is never static. From the moment of conception to the time of death, the person undergoes continued and progressive changes. At every age, some of the developmental changes are just beginning, some are at the peak and others are in the process of decline. 2. Development proceeds from the head downward: This is called the cephalocaudle principle. This principle describes the direction of growth and development. According to this principle, the child gains control of the head first, then the arms, and then the legs. Infants develop control of the head and face movements within the first two months after birth. In the next few months, they are able to lift themselves up by using their arms. By 6 to 12 months of age, infants start to gain leg control and may be able to crawl, stand, or walk. Coordination of arms always precedes coordination of legs. 3. Development proceeds from the centre of the body outward: This is the principle of proximodistal development that also describes the direction of development. This means that the spinal cord develops before outer parts of the body. The child’s arms develop before the hands and the hands and feet develop before the fingers and toes. Finger and toe muscles (used in fine motor dexterity) are the last to develop in physical development. 4. Development depends on maturation and learning: Maturation refers to the sequential characteristic of biological growth and development. The biological changes occur in sequential order and give children new abilities. Changes in the brain and nervous system account largely for maturation. These changes help children to improve in thinking (cognitive) and motor (physical)