March 13, 2023

INTRODUCTION TO RESOURCES MANAGEMENT – Click to view NATURAL RESOURCES – Click to view MAN-MADE RESOURCES – Click to view HUMAN RESOURCES – Click to view FINANCIAL RESOURCES – Click to view ENERGY RESOURCES – Click to view LOGISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION – Click to view OFFICE ADMINISTRATION – Click to view ROLE OF GOVERNMENT AND DEVELOPMENT PARTNERS IN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT – Click to view EMERGING TRENDS IN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT – Click to view

Community development is a process by which efforts of people is united with those of outside agencies to improve the living standards among communities and to integrate them with the life of the nation. The aim of community development is to organize people for planning and action. Community participation is the voluntary and democratic involvement of people in the decisions directly affecting their lives and development. Community participation is the involvement that may be complete or incomplete. Community participation is whereby community take part in having a share of all partaking of the project.   Steps used in determining and establishing community participation in needs Assessment and decision making process Entry into the community Communities are complex and dynamic and people might seem simple from outside but different when it seems to understanding their needs and interest in an interaction.  Listen to the people Their concerns, what they have done before, what they are trying to do, their feelings, hopes and expectations. You need to establish a dialogue with the people but do not give an answer to the problems since you are not a savior. Talk to the people Tell them who you are, why are you there, what you want out of them and communicate your presence. Gain acceptability and influence This is by being patient and friendly with them and also by participating in their daily life activities. Let the community identify and prioritize their needs This can be facilitated through an open discussion. Do not make decisions for them but only help them to state the actions. Set goals Let them set the goals and how they are going to respond to them. Your duty is to make sure they put it under practice. The community should be let to decide on how to accomplish the goal Let them decide where to get the local materials and resources. You also need to respect their ideas, culture and opinions and also propose your involvement. Start planning the project together Start by setting the steps to be taken. Also answer the questions of who does what, when, where and how Attach the resources needed to accomplish each step. Write a project proposal Communicate in the document for the community members to donors what is required. The proposal should contain the goal, action and plans of the community. Importance of Community Participation in Project Development and Management It ensures sustainability of projects. Sustainable development requires support and at the local level. This calls for active involvement of the community in the project and activities intended to benefit its members. Ownership Involvement of the community at all stages of development encourages ownership of project. Self reliance Through participation, people develop self reliance. People begin to do something about their problem. Partnership Community participation ensures that people work in partnership with government to achieve meaningful development. Resource mobilization Resources can easily mobilize when communities are committed and involved. Development of community institutions Community institutions continue to develop as the project continues to produce other benefits. Development cannot be adequately supported outside community that is what local members need to participate. Distribution and benefits It ensures equitable distribution of benefits in favor of the economically weak groups. It allows for the design of development projects that are realistic to satisfy the needs of the people. Communities have power in decision making and participating can bring pressure or comply with decisions It helps community members to become aware of their problems.   Process of Participation The process of participation follows a cycle of events and community members need to participate. Steps followed include:- Identify the needs and seek ways and means to meet the need in community decisions i.e. Listen more than you talk Set priorities among the action and need listed Decide on plan of action based on what each need requires and involves Implementation Have an in built check list and balance for easy flow of the plan considering the budget and time check. Evaluate the program based on achievements considering the pros and cons constraints and success. Areas of Involvement Community members should be involved in the following areas:- Conception of the project: community members know exactly what they want for themselves in terms of development project. Mobilization of local resources Labour provision: this reduces the cost of project implementation Decision making: the community should participate in making key decisions about the project that will affect their lives Monitoring and evaluation: the community should be key stakeholders in monitoring and evaluation process of their projects.   Community Participation in Resource Mobilization This can be done in different ways:- Identify the resources required to undertake the project and project activities. Establishing the nature and volume of resources that are available within the locality Determine the resource deficit by comparing the required resources with the available resources. Put measures in place to mobilize locally available resources and finally look for resources from the external.   When Is Community Participation Desirable In very poor economies where local government have insufficient fund to provide basic services, there is little likelihood of resources being diverted to away from the community. When a project being produced directly have effect on the welfare of the community. Community participation also involves planning and implementation of local projects. As a form of raising awareness such as, health care by drawing peoples attention to need for personnel hygiene. As an end in itself especially in the form of meeting when they help to reduce internal community tensions and when they increase consciousness towards a problem or a potential solution.   When is community participation un-desirable? Participation should not be stimulated when it is quite clear that people do not want to participate. There may be good reasons for their situation i.e. cultural reasons. It is undesirable when it diverts resources away from the community especially if it is in form of self help. It is undesirable when it involves already busy people in long hours of meeting or work

Project reports are instruments of communication written during or at terminal level of project implementation. It is a tool for communication amongst staffs and other intended parties including planners, policy makers, politicians, extension workers and beneficiaries. It is written to give feedback achieved in a project to stakeholders. Utilization and Dissemination of Report Information Report information is useless if it is not disseminated for use. Data collected at various levels should be used to:- Data collected at various levels should be used to improve program decisions Project information obtained during the pre-program phase should be used in planning an effective program Information obtained during formative stage of the program should be used in making management decisions Project information obtained at the end of the program should be used to learn lessons and plan improved programs The report helps the reader explore and undertake important principles, practices and procedures about the project. What makes a good proposal? Appearance It should be attractive, profession with an inviting appearance. It should also give ease, access of the information. Substance It should have well organized plan of work. It should have some technical details but not too much because it is a selling document. Required format You should use 12.0 point font, 1 margin, 1 sided copy and single spaced text. And pages should be numbered. Clearly highlight the key points and features in each figure, break up large blocks of texts with headings Organization A project report should be organized logically and in a sequential manner it should contain the following:- Title page Executive summary Table of contents Introduction Statement of the problem (justification of why you carry out a project) Goals and objectives Implementation strategies Target group Budget Monitoring and evaluation strategies Management strategies and structures (size of the structure should not be wide) Key Elements of Project Proposal Executive summary/project over view Situation analysis and statement of the problem Goals, objectives and activities and output Intervention strategies/methodology of implementation Target group Itemized budget Project schedule Monitoring and evaluation Management structures Presentation of Project Report The project team should ensure that:- Results being reported must be interesting Use a form of communication that catches the attention of the audience. Results should be understandable Communication in the language of intended audience Results should be convincing Result should not be opinions of only a few. It should have a true picture as possible. Results should be timely In order to reach those who make decisions, results should be received on time to provide them with information before decisions are made. Results should be participating The communication should decide what and who to other interest parties. NB Results should be present form that is useful to the audiences Main Ways to Present Results Written reports Includes reports, case studies, communication case study, graphics When presenting written reports, you should:- Identify the theme and stick to it Identify the audience, and then use imaginative language so as to hold the reader’s interest. Identify the communication barriers that might exist between the readers and the writer and be sensitive to them. Be brief and easily readable. Use short sentences and clear writing Oral report Drama, video, slide tape, tape recording, story telling, graphics. Visual presentation Photographs, drawings, video, slide tapes, cartoons, graphics. Challenges in Project Report Writing Language barrier Use of program/project becomes a problem to other report users who may not be conversant with jargon of development world and hence could be hindered in their question to communication within the project. Lack of communication skills Requisite social and communication skills to technically express the project intentions and concept. Requirements for extra information This involves the particular information that a donor requires to be provided with e.g audited accounts, reports etc Inadequate/limited resources Technical expertise

Sustainability is a characteristic of a process or state that can be maintained at a certain level indefinitely. It is the continuation of benefits after major assistance from the donors has been completed. Sustainability in development refers to processes and relative increase in local capacity and performance while foreign assistance decreases or shifts. Reasons for sustaining projects A sustainable project will not use more Natural resources than the local evaluation can supply i.e. Can not use more financial resources than the local community can. Sustainability of projects can reduce the likelihood of them collapsing after they have just finished. It reduces the financial cost of development project It reduces social problems like dependence on the stakeholders’ i.e. External donors and their resources. Sustainable development is also linked with continued material development. Factors That Lead To Project Failure A project is considered to have succeeded when it meets most or all its goals and objectives to the quality specification as outlined in its initials project development document. Some of the causes of project failure include:- Overrunning of costs and schedule due to the lack of proper control systems and mechanisms. Difficulties to attain goals due to extraneous (external) factors i.e. unforeseeable legal hurdles and complications. Projects outcome being inconsistent with the promoter’s intentions and expectations of the intended. Beneficiaries – may call for pre-mature termination. Lack of workable strategy and unworkable policies Lack of appropriate level of resources   Factors Leading To Project Sustainability Institutional sustainability: – can the strengthened institutional structure continue to deliver the result of technical cooperation to end users. Institutional sustainability can be linked to the concept of social sustainability that checks on how the interventions can be sustained by social structures and institutions Economic and financial sustainability;- can the technical cooperation results continue to yield an economic benefit after the technical cooperation is withdrawn, economically, sustainability may be at risk if the end users continue to depend on heavily subsidized activities and inputs. Ecological sustainability:- in this case we assess whether benefits to be generated by the technical cooperation is likely to lead a deterioration in the physical environment hence indirectly contributing to a fall in production or the well being of groups targeted and their society. Energetic sustainability: – this type of sustainability is often concerned with the production of energy and mineral resources. Some researchers have appointed to trends, which document the limits of production. Factors Influencing Development Sustainability Participation and ownership Get stakeholders to genuinely participate in design and implementation. Build on their initiatives and demands. Get them to monitor the project and periodically evaluate it for results. Capacity building and training Training stakeholders to take over should begin from the start of any project and continue throughout the approach should be both to motivate and transfer skills to prepare. Government policies Development projects should be aligned with local government policies. Financial Financial capacity of the organization determines the sustainability. Medium level countries find it hard to sustain projects. Management and organization Activities that integrate with or add to local structures may have better prospects for sustainability than those that establish new or parallel structures. Social, gender and culture expectations The introduction of new ideas, technologies and skills requires an understanding of local decision making systems, gender divisions and cultural preferences. Technology All outside equipment must be selected with careful consideration given to the local finance available for maintenance and replacement. Cultural acceptability and local capacity to maintain equipment and buy spare parts are vital. Environment Poor rural communities that depend on natural resources should be involved in identifying and managing environmental risks. Urban communities should identify and manage waste disposal and pollution risks. External political and economic facts Projects should not be too complicated, ambitious or expensive in weak countries. Challenges Faced In Project Sustainability Resistance to change Lack of coordinated participation from all stakeholders Reliance on external resources and support

These are activities that are consistence with closing of the project. It is ending of a project life cycle. Project either casually because of excessive costs, schedule over runs or failure to accomplish their performance expectations. They may also end if its expected results no longer have a strategic fit in the purpose of the enterprise.   Reasons for Terminating Projects Projects are usually terminated for two basic reasons:- Project failure and project success Project failure:      this means that the project has failed to meet its cost, schedule and technical performance objectives or it does not fit in the organizations future. Project success:     this means that the project has met its cost, schedule, objectives and has been integrated into the customers’ organization to contribute to the customer’s mission.   Other Reasons for Terminating Projects If the project results have been achieve; if appropriate services and maintenance contracts can be negotiated and consummated. If the project has over run its costs and schedule objectives and or is failing to make satisfactory progress towards attaining its technical performance objectives. If the project owner’s strategy has changed such that the project no longer has a strategic fit in the owner organization’s future. If the project objective is lost and thus putting the continued application of resources on the project in doubt. Environmental changes that could emerge leading to adverse influence on the projects future. If the priority of the project is not high enough to survive in competition with other higher projects. Changes in the overall project goals could also lead to termination   Others Economic e.g inflation Environment Task team factor Sponsorship When the project costs exceeds business benefits Types of Project Termination Natural termination – This is when the project goals have been met. Unnatural termination – This when some project constraints have been violate, performance is inadequate or the project goals are no longer relevant to some overall needs.   Emotional Issues Project Termination Include/Effects Fear of no future work Loss of interest in task remaining Loss of project driven motivation Loss of team identity Selection of personnel to be re-assigned Division of interest   The natural termination of a project is concerned with:- Identification of remaining deliverables and products Identification of outstanding commitments Control of charges to the project Screening of uncompleted task not needed Closure of work orders and work packages Identification of physical facilities assigned to the project Identification of project personnel Disposing of project materials Obtaining needed certifications Communicating closures Closing down physical facilities Agreement which clients on remaining deliverable end product   Ways of Terminating a Project Termination by integration Project resources are integrated with organization function or department to perform duty or wait for a new project. Termination by addition This is by changing the overall goal. Termination by starvation This is when a project is terminated pre-maturely. It may be due to over run of funds or budget cut. Termination by extinction If project objectives are unable to meet the needs of the people or if it has not met i.e. if it was successful or had failed. Shutting Down a Project Termination of a project involves bringing a project to a planned and orderly conclusion. Project termination should be planned with care and attention as are other project life cycle phase. An important party of project termination is to provide assistance and guidance to the members of the project team who are being demobilized. The project manager should consider the following actions:- Prepare and issue a project termination plan Hold project termination meetings with the project team members to finalize remaining tasks. Be available for counseling with project team member about re-assignment opportunities, emotional issues and career opportunities. Determine how the final documentation will be distributed and to whom. Work with team members to assure clear phase out protocols in terms of individual and team responsibilities. Meet with human resource individuals, managers to identify project termination personnel needs and assist team members in scheduling interviews, orientation of remaining members and incoming personnel who are brought in for termination of the project. Have a final meeting to thank everyone and recognize the distinguished contributions of project team members. Termination Strategies In termination, a project manager would be wise to conduct an immediate review of the status of the work packages, along with the funding schedule and technical performance parameters. Several Other Things Must Be Done:- Ensure that all projects deliverable end product have been provided to the project owner and that all project functional work is finished along with any close out of records. Review the status of all contracts to ensure that requirements have been met or provisions made if such requirements have not been duly satisfies. Work with the project team in developing and distributing a close out plan that provides guidance for an orderly termination of all elements of the project. Maintain an on going surveillance of the close out activities including close out of all records and the disposition of materials. Notify relevant stakeholders of the termination Ensure that all financial matters on the project have been satisfactorily terminated. Assist members of the project team to find other work in other organizations. Prepare the project history particularly a “lesson learned”, report so that future teams in the organization can benefit from the experiences of the project.

Project evaluation is a process of determining the extent to which objectives have been achieved. It is a set of procedures to appraise a projects merits and information about its goals, objectives, activities outcomes and costs An evaluation can be done during implementation at its end or afterwards Aims of Evaluation To determine the efficiency of which project interventions are To assess the effectiveness of a project To measure the sustainability of a project To determine the relevance of a project To determine the relevance of a project To measure the impact of an intervention/project Scope of Evaluation/Key Evaluation Question Efficiency This is the measure of the relationship between output and input. It answers the questions: How economically have the output been achieved How much have been put to get what  Effectiveness It is the measure of the relationship between project output and objective and the outcomes. It is the extent to which the development intervention objectives are expected to be achieved. Relevancy It measures the relationship between project output to the needs that were identifies. It investigates the extent to which outputs of a project have met the needs of the beneficiaries. Sustainability It estimates the extent to which a project will continue after external funding has terminated. Types of Evaluation Baseline survey/feasibility survey Formative/ongoing evaluation Summative/final evaluation Impact evaluation Baseline Survey/Feasibility Survey This is carried out before project implementation to assess and determine development needs and potential of the target population in the area. It also checks on the proposed approaches and planned project activities Primary users of feasibility survey are:- Donors Implementing agencies Beneficiary community Researchers Institutions of higher learning   Formation/On-Going Evaluation This is a continuous evaluation during project implementation. It enables the implementing personnel to check on different aspects of the project and their effects as well as detect problems or shortcomings in good time to make necessary changes. Components of formative evaluation Implementation evaluation Progressive evaluation Implementation evaluation – its main purpose is to assess whether the project is being conducted as planned. It is also called process evaluation and occur several times during the project implementation period.   Progressive Evaluation It assesses the progress of meeting the goal of the programs/project. Information is collected to determine the impact of activities/strategies on beneficiaries. Primary users Donors Project management Target group   Summative/Final Evaluation This is done at the end of project implementation. It is used to examine the projects effectiveness in achieving its objectives and its contribution to the development of the area. Final evaluation is concerned with all aspects of the project. The main purpose is: To assess results and effects of the intervention To draw lessons To assess the impact to justify resources To justify replication Primary Users of Summative Evaluation Donors project planner Government Target group Who carried out summative evaluation External evaluators Internal evaluators Project staff Beneficiary communities Impact Evaluation It is done 1-10 years after project implementation. Its main purpose is to establish sustainability of the results of the project. It is used to ensure direct and indirect changes and draw lessons from the project. Main beneficiaries Donors Planners Government Researchers Academics  Types of Evaluation Internal evaluators External evaluators Internal Evaluators They include people who have been included in the project i.e. Project team, target group and beneficiaries. They assess whether the project outcome achieved its intended purpose and if not they recommend areas of improvement or next cause of action Advantages of Using Internal Evaluators They have internal knowledge of the project They have personal commitment to the project Their evaluation results are easily accepted and used It gives them a learning experience they can use in future activities Disadvantages They are likely to be more subjective and blind to their own faults They can be inexperienced and lack evaluation skills and technique If they lack integrity, they might ignore negative aspects of the project and emphasize on the positive ones only.   External Evaluators They include professional evaluators, donors, headquarter staff Advantages Their findings seem to be more objective and more acceptable to funding agencies They have more refined skills and evaluation techniques Disadvantages They are expensive They lack first hand knowledge of project operations Evaluation involves 1. Measuring Evaluations will 1st measure what has been done in relation to what should have been done. If the evaluating agency is observing the work continuously, the performance evaluation is to be done. 2. Reviewing The purpose of a review is basically participative problem solving. It is also keeps the implementing team informed and alerted that their performance is closely checked. 3. Reporting All information related or collected during evaluation must be presented in form of a report that is represented to respective bodies’ i.e. the donor agency. 4. Deciding and Taking Corrective Measures This involves determining the cause of action possible to deviate from an undesired cause of action if any.   PROJECT PERFORMANCE INDICATORS An indicator is something that points to or signifies the condition of something else. It is used to determine whether something is on some scale of measurement. It indicates the degree of progress that is being achieved towards some goals or objectives or meeting some standard.   Types of Indicators Direct indicators These are pieces of information that express and relate to what is being measured e.g if information on crop yields is measured. Indirect indicators These are essential pieces of information chosen amongst many possible pieces of information to serve as substitutes of proxies to answer question or respond to statements that are difficult to measure. Organization instead of direct indicators of income, indirect indicators of poverty are chosen.   Elements of Indicators Observer – has intentions/motives or skills in using apparatus Apparatus/instruments Object of observation Actions performed by the observer with the apparatus   Sources of Information Commonly Used By Indicators Direct observation of conditions or performance by the monitor Project records e.g finance records, committee minutes etc Project committee members, community leaders, project staff and others Community members (both

Monitoring involves continuous observations and checking on activities and their results The purpose is to ensure that activities are proceeding according to plan to provide a record of how inputs are used and to warn of deviations from initials and expected outcomes. Monitoring is the process of checking the progress of the project. It is giving of information and assessing information to ensure project progress. Activities with a view to ascertain whether they are in line with agreed work plan and number report any deviation. Monitoring is important for project managers to ensure that they make appropriate decisions. The use of the term monitoring varies with organization. Others use the term review Purpose of monitoring To provide relevant timely information to indicate to those concerned whether or not the operations, performance and impact of an intervention is as expected. To ensure tasks are being carried out according to schedule. To see if outputs and outcomes are achieving designed level To check whether or not project impacts accords to project objectives To assess whether objectives need to change in light/in view of experience Monitoring Addresses Measurement of physical process of a project i.e. the review of project activities Measurement of financial progress Addresses the concern of quality control and the fitness of the project output for their intended purposes Also helps inn giving other information that is important and specific for smooth running of the project. Basic concepts in monitoring Monitoring procedure This is a group of activities done by people (monitors) who follow a plan to check program implementation.  A monitor This is a person who uses a monitoring procedure. The person may or may not have other program responsibility. Monitoring plan It is a description of how specific components from a monitoring system will be used, when they will be used (scheduled) and how the results will be reported. Monitoring system It is a group of components related to some aspects of program implementation Each component includes a description of a standard group of indicators and a description of some adjustment to make when the situation deviates from the standard. Standard It is a description of the characteristics for acceptance conditions  Indicator This is an explicit procedure that provides trust worthy information about the level of performance or conditions related to some standards. Adjustment procedure It is a description of what to do, when an indicator shows the situation deviation from ascent end performance or conditions. An Example of a Simple Short Monitoring Plan   TIME PERIOD:          SEP TO OCT, 2000/2001 MONITORS:             Project officers/coordinators/communities/village committees STANDARDS: Community meetings where program decisions are made shall have At least half men and half women present who live in the community   INDICATORS: Meeting attendances figures in the minutes for each meeting. The Monitors count the number of women and men present at a Meeting compared with the number of men and women living in the community.   ADJUSTMENT           If the percentage of men and women present is less than 40% then the project manager helps the project committee members creates a plan to increase attendance at the next meeting. PROCEDURES:   REPORTING:  Each man, the reported attendance figures or the monitor own counts of the people attending the meeting will be included in the monthly report for that project.   Characteristics of Appropriate Monitoring System It is continuous: throughout the life of an activity or organization/project It checks mainly efficiency, the process of the work inputs, activities output, conditions and assumptions. It generally involves only the insiders Documents i.e. Monthly and quarterly reports are used Managers and staff are the main users of the information gathered.   Areas of Project Monitoring Resource utilization: – resource acquisition, utilization and consumption are a critical component for ensuring effective and efficient implementation of the project. To ensure that project activities are carried out, there must be constant and regular flow of the resource. The resources must be utilized for the intended purposes. They should also be sourced and supplied as per the spent specification in terms of cost, quantity and quality. Time schedule adherence a significant element in project monitoring.   Benefits flows analysis:  project monitoring is done to determine flow of project benefit directly to the intended beneficiaries. These benefits must be shared and distributed equally and equitably. The beneficiary must participate in the sharing of the benefits and even the losses accrue from the project. Community participation and engagement:  any project must ensure active, genu9ine, voluntary and popular participation and involvement of not only the project beneficiaries but also the community indirectly. Genuine and popular participation will be monitored on the account of the following aspects: All the members of the community (men, women, youth etc) must be actively involved and engaged. All members of the community must participate at all level i.e. Project ideas implementation and management. Participation in terms of sharing profits and losses accrued from the project. Participation must not only be active but also voluntary, popularly, genuine and objective oriented. Elements of Project Monitoring Framework These are issues that needs to be put in place in project monitoring We need to specify the people/offices/agencies that are going to use the information. Depending on who will use the information determines how you will present it. Specify who will participate in project writing What are key objective of the project? Specify indicators to measure to progress What methods are you to use to gather information? Specify when monitoring will take place Specify how the monitoring system is going to be managed Specify who will manage the information Importance of Project Monitoring Monitoring can be used as some kind of accountability to donors/stakeholders. When you conduct monitoring you are expected to write a monitoring report. It provides information and feedback that can be used for lesson learning It helps to appreciate and understand changes in the evaluation e.g inflation It provides information that can be used for the measurement of project progress It is a tool for management, implementation,

This is a crucial stage of nay project since the objective of the earlier effort in the stages above was to have projects to be undertaken. Implementation is the process in which plans are carried out to achieve specific objectives. It involves estimating the people and resources to implement the plan. It is a phase where project is made to happen. It is also a phase where controls are imposed to ensure project implementation remains on course. Implementation of project revolves around three important functions namely:- Organize – assigning duties and coordinating staff and activities Directing – giving instructions and delegating duties to various members of the staff Supervising – maintaining control, check ups and outs on project activities and on staff implementation.   Factors to Consider In Project Implementation Government and other stakeholder’s policies – these should be made in case of flexibility on reality on the ground. Priority and order of goals – most crucial and needed goal must be put at the forefront during implementation. Priority is made in terms of the urgency in the needs to be accomplished. Availability of resources – allocation of resources is done based on the resource base. At implementation ensure adequate resources are allocated influx in resource allocation should be avoided at the same time avoid over budgeting. Work done per stage is effective if the human resource is available and effective. Timing aspects – time expected to accomplish a certain task has to be re-instated. Too much time allocation as well as less time allocation should be discouraged Initial plans – carry out the implementation according to realistic practical initial plans and designs in view of meeting the overall goal. Role of a Project Manager in Project Implementation The role of a project manager in the implementation process is an integrated process that involves the following aspects: Allocation of resources Project resources are human, material and natural resources. They should be allocated to the activities to be performed by the manager. They are made available and used in economic way to ensure effectiveness of the project. The project manager needs to consider the total demand for key resources. When considering the project as a whole, these will be completion between activities for resources and the demand may either exceed the planned availability or produce a fluctuating pattern of their use. This is known as resource aggregation. Organizing This is the process that involves the shaping of an organization as it grows shrinks, collapses or even changes. It is also the process of grouping activities and resources in a logical and appropriate way/fashion It is involved with procurement factors i.e. people, equipment, materials and services. It also involves grouping and alignment of resources and delegation of authority and responsibility within the organization so that work is carried out as planned. Grouping of resources and activities to accomplish some end results in an efficient and effective manner requires the following:- Designing of jobs Authority and responsibility Span of management Managing line and staff position Task determination Job description Organizing units Grouping jobs Designing of jobs Is the process of determining what procedure and operations are to be performed by employers in each position? It involves Job specialization – is the process of breaking down one job into several other jobs. Job rotation – is the systematic moving of employees from one job to another. Job enlargement – changing nature of job by adding more activities Job enrichment – changing nature of the job by adding more activities to the business and more discretion in how to do or perform activities. Grouping Jobs The process of grouping jobs is also referred to as departmentalization normally done after jobs have been designed and then grouped into logical sets i.e. Departmentalization by product – set your department in relation to the number of products. Departmentalization by function – i.e. By functional areas of management i.e. Financial, research, marketing, human resource department etc Departmentalization by location/region – they are normally organizations that cover many regions e.g coca cola company. Authority and Responsibility While authority is power to carry out task or assignment, responsibility can be defined as a duty or obligation to carry out an assignment or task. At the level of an individual manager, when the manager assigns task to the organizational level, it is referred to as decentralization. Delegation is the process through which the manager assigns post of his/her work to subordinates  Barriers to Delegation Managers may be disorganized and therefore may not be willing to delegate duties. The manager may not want the subordinate the benefit as he/she may be selfish. Manager is afraid that subordinate may do much better than himself. Subordinate may not perform or be willing to accept that kind of job. Decentralization Maximum delegation throughout the organization result into disorganization. Decentralization is a situation where organization delegate power and decision making authority to lower level management.   Role of Decentralization in Organization It plays the role of keeping managers who are close to problems alert and responsible for making decision about those problems. It is also common where decisions are required on minor items. It is also suitable where the evaluation is more complex or dynamic Span of Management This refers to the number of subordinate who report directly to a given manager. They are too commonly referred to as the wide span of management. Wide span of management is a situation in an organization where a manager has a large number of subordinators who are reporting to him/her. Narrow span of management is whereby managers have a few subordinates reporting to the managers this lead to all organizational structure. Managing Line and Staff Position Line position is those positions in the direct chain of command with specific authority, accomplishing the goals of an organization. Staff positions are positions outside the chain of command that are advisory, consultative or supportive in nature. Organization Design This is the overall configuration of position and interrelationship among positions within the

A risk is any happening or event that its impact normally has an adversely positive or negative impact. it is an act of uncertainty occurring in a project affecting its continuity in achieving the objectives eventually affecting cost, time and quality basically individuals prefers maximizes those that are positively consequential. Concept of Risk Management Risk management is the act is of developing a response mechanism to suppress mitigating the existence of a given risk after occurrence. The greatest degree of uncertainty about the future is encountered early in the life of a new project. Decisions taken during the appraisal stage have a larger impact on final cost, duration and benefits. The conclusion drawn from research is that parties involved in construction project would benefit greatly from reduction in certainty prior to financial commitment. Risk management has a well planned set of activities going through the following set of stages. Risk identification Risk quantification Risk response Risk monitoring and control Risk Analysis At the appraisal stage, PM inputs will concentrate on providing:- Realistic estimate of capital and running cost Realistic time scales and programs for project implementation Appropriate specification for performance standards Performing risk analysis When performing risk analysis then efforts should be concentrated on:- Seeking sins that will avoid or reduce risks Considering whether the extent or nature of the major risks are such that the normal transfer may be unavailable or expensive Any special treatment that may be considered for risk transfers e.g insurance or unconventional contractual arrangement Setting realistic contingencies and estimating tolerances consistence with the objective of preparing the best estimate of anticipated total project cost. Identifying comparative differences in the risk ness of alternative project schemes. Risks and Uncertainties In general risks may be reduced in the following ways:- Obtaining additional information Performing additional tests or simulations Allocation additional resources Improving communication and managing organizational interfaces. Market risks may be frequently reduced by staging the development of the project. All the above will incur additional in early stages of development.   Types of Risks Technical risks These are risks that accrue from unproven technology that is relevant skills of operations are unavailable. Management risks They come as a result of poor appropriation of resources (time and cost) or poor administration Organization risks They come when departments conflict in terms of performance, financial appropriation, job allocation etc External risks They come when external changes that are likely to affect the project objective occur e.g government regulations i.e. taxation, inflation.   Performing Risk Management Risks are specific to a project and they all affect cost and benefit. While performing risk management. The following should be looked into:- Environmental risks – these frequently occurs in compromise following comparison of cost with benefit. They are likely to have a significant influence on the conceptual design and the response should therefore be agreed prior to sanction. Risk to health and safety – it is normally considered as an hazard during design and it embraces issues i.e. Reliability and efficiency in addition to safety. Innovation – thorough testing but in appropriate time may reduce the consequential risks of inadequate performance and cost provision must be included. Risk to activity – it is related mainly to the implementation phase of the project these risks arise mainly from uncertainty and they are the responsibility of the project manager. Performing a Risk Response Risk response may be done through many ways. Not all risks may be mitigated but those with high probability and high impact are likely to meet immediate action. Effectiveness in planning for mitigation determines the risk decrease or increase of project objectives. However, several strategies may be employed as you respond to risk. Risk avoidance – this is changing the overall project plan to eliminate the mess prior to its manifestation. It aims at protecting the objectives of the risk impacts. Transference – this involves shifting the management and consequences of the risk to a 3rd It involves payment of a subscription rate using a fixed value to a contractor or a consultant. Mitigation – involves reducing the probability and consequences of adverse events to a more or an acceptable through shorthand taking early action is more effective than a “repair” of the consequences e.g by seeking more project partners to increase capacity. Risk acceptance – this is deciding not to change because the project plan in dealing with risk. Possible acceptance requires no action e.g there could be a last minute replacement of a staff.   Implementing risk management The logic process of risk management may be defined as:- Identification of risks and uncertainties Analysis of the implication (individual and collective) Response to minimize risks Allocation of appropriate contingencies Risk management is an essential part in project management cycle therefore risk management Requires that you accept that uncertainty exist Risk management generates a structured response to risk in terms of alternative plans, solutions and contingencies It generates a realistic and stimes different attitude in project staff by preparing them for the risk event.   If uncertainty is managed realistically the process will Improve project planning by prompting what if questions Generate imaginative response Gives greater confidence in estimate Encourage provision of an appropriate contingencies and consideration on how they could be managed.   Implementing a risk management plan Risk identification – this refers to naming the risk by nature and origin e.g the causative agent and the overall impact. Risk quantification – here the risk is measured in the extent at which risks have caused loss and expected mitigation (response) in financial cost and human resource Response stage – here the strategy to minimize or mitigate a risk are put in place. Risk monitoring and control – having a foresight on the response will include better appropriation and contingencies. Ethics in Risk Management Accept that the risk exist Generate a structured response to risk in terms of alternative plans, solutions and contingencies It generates a realistic attitude in project staff by preparing them for risk rather than taking them by

Planning refers to what is to be done, how it is to be done and who is to do it. In its expanding role, the planning process should refer to making decisions in a forecasted evaluation. Planning involve the determination of future course of actions i.e. how it is to be done, why an action is to be taken, what is to be done, when it is to be done etc Project planning means an activity in which human, material and financial resources are organized in a better way to undertake a unique work within a specified time, cost and quality to achieve objectives. Anyone planning a project of significant size will soon find that, there are a number of factors both inside and outside the project organization that can have a profound effect on the planer’s intentions. External factors that can affect or wretch attempts at project planning include:- Act of god e.g earthquakes, floods, slides Fiscal policy – the policy of a national government in respect of taxation and other financial measures Corporate strategy – i.e. decisions made by managers outside and above the project organization Statutory regulations – legislations by national and regional government can impose extra burdens on project designers and contractors that have to be taken into account at the planning stage. Characteristics of Planning Planning is closely associated with the objectives of the organization Planning is concerned with looking into the future. It requires forecasting of future situation in that organization has to function planning involves the selection of the best alternatives i.e. To achieve objectives Planning is comprehensive and includes every course of action in the organization Planning is an interdependent process i.e. It coordinates activities of various departments, sections and subjections Planning is flexible as its based on future conditions that are dynamic. Importance of Planning All managerial actions depends on planning It provides a guideline to all functions Better planning ensures better utilization of the organization’s resources It helps to focus attention on objectives thus all activities are performed to meet these objectives within a specified time. It minimizes cost because of the emphasis on efficient operations and consistency. It reduces risks and uncertainties and prepares for any eventuality It helps in identifying situations that may impact negatively in implementation of the project. It helps to determine available resources for the project implementation It helps in control – control involves measurement of accomplishment of events against plans and correction of deviations to assure attainment of objectives according to plan. It increases organization effectiveness – proper use of resources to accomplish objectives.   Causes of Poor Project Planning      Lack of accurate information Problems of changer in technology, business conditions, consumer taste and desires Poor project management discipline Lack of knowledge and skills in planning Inadequate time for planning Wrong team members of the project Inflexibility in planning (inability to change) Absence of risk management – a good project must have a well defined risk plan Components of a comprehensive Plan for a project Planning the project work – this spells out the activities related to the organization or the project in a detailed schedule and sequential way Manpower and organization planning – i.e. determining human resource, work force and labor required Planning for funds – this establishes the overall cost i.e. sources and uses of funds within the project Planning the information system – i.e. ensuring to update and keep the data or information catalogue for the project. Project planning guidelines The project team should have a detailed project plan. The plan includes the following:- Work schedule and guidelines Budgets, cost account and control system Detailed work breakdown structures and work packages Quality plans Areas if high risk, uncertainty and contingency plans Documentation plans Change, control and work review plans Personnel plans and resources utilization plans Project guidelines involves Project identification – this involves needs assessment in order to determine the most felt need. The project identified should be the priority of the target group. Verification of feasibility report – after a need assessment report is completed, which summarizes the problems and needs of the area, the strength and weaknesses in terms of resources and opportunities available for development are also identified. Identification of project objectives- once the project has been selected, the objectives is stated clearly in measurable terms. Project team is identifies – these are people who are going to work in the project and they need to possess relevant qualifications and experience. Identify the project stakeholders – these are groups/individuals that have interest for the project to be initiated. Establish the scope of work – these involves, knowing the nature of work to be performed. Draw the standard of work or specification – this involves specifying the quality of work that is expected to be performed. This information would be used to be performed. This information would be used during monitoring and evaluation. Identify the project key stages – these are vital activities for the project that must be performed at different times and their completion affect the entire project. Prepare the project bar chart – a bar chart is a diagrammatic representation of the project implementation. It is a tool used to show how the project is to be implemented from the start to end of the project. Draw the project network critically – a project network is a diagrammatic representation showing how much time the project is going to take on each activity from the start to the end of the project.   Project Planning Process 1. Problem identification This is the 1st step in project planning. It involves identifying the problem that interferes with the development in the communication. All projects are intended to solve or reduce some problems thus the need to identify the problems and they should be felt needs. 2. Setting objectives Objectives are positive statements of the goals we want to achieve by carrying out the project. These are general and specific objectives. General objective – is a statement about what

In project identification, potential set of interventions arising from ideas crystallized in the conception stage are determined and individual or communication representative to an agency capable of identifying on institution to provide the necessary support to realize the expectation may submit the in information in the proposal for project conception. Usually some objective judgment is applied to assess the proposal or set or proposals to establish if the proposal can proceed to the next stage in the cycle.   Problem identification  This is a very crucial process in the formative stages of any project development undertaking and it forms the basis of project justification and rational i.e. the core of the project existence and definition. Problem identification refers to the process of assessing the problems people encounter in the community and prioritizing them. Projects grow out of problems or opposite. Problem identification can also refer to finding out those issues affecting people and those that limit them to function maximamlly. These issues are summed up into a problem statement. It specifies the problem at hand that need to be addressed, ideas to solve the problem are generated and produced as a document describing the project in sufficient details coveting all aspects necessary for consideration by project team. The problem to be solved becomes the objective of the project  Sources of Project Ideas These ideas are usually hatched through discussion by local leaders in a community and specialists as need based issues are crystallized into a proposal. The projects can therefore be conceived based on:- Market demand – either domestic or overseas Resource availability – opposite to make profitable use of available resources Technology – i.e. to make use of available technology Natural calamity – in order to address the adverse effects of natural events i.e drought, floods etc Political consideration Project Ideas Can Also Originate From Other Sources National level – these are projects with form part of a broad national program Sectoral level – various sectors may decide to concentrate on development projects in one area because of the potential in that area NGO`s – there are many NGO`s operating in local areas, they can come up with profit ideas aimed at benefiting the people. Leaders – politicians as people’s representatives also come up with profit ideas Local people – the local people are the intended beneficiaries of the proposed project. The projects initiated by the people themselves have strong support from them and stand a better chance of success.  Factors influencing the selection of community projects The project ideas generated from the community level are many but the available financial resources and the staff do not allow for implementation of more than a few projects at a time. These projects are sorted out and only those given the highest priority are submitted for implementation. Projects are selected with a particular objective, project selection should not be assumed as an easy task. In essence, the basis of selecting a project is determined by the objective it should fulfill the objectives or the problem it is meant to solve among other things. Project selection therefore is the process of evaluating individual projects or group of projects and choosing to implement some of them so that the objectives of the organization are achieved.   These factors include:- Policy framework This s the main guide to all matters involved in the project. it clarifies the overall principles for the project attitude towards handling management work. Policy framework involves statements that have the backing and resources necessary for its achievement. A project policy framework incorporates all stages of the project from completion to operation stems until decommissioning. It also serves the purpose of coordinating the project activities. The policy framework should be based on the following activities i.e. planning, execution. All the activities and tasks affecting the project require well laid down policies describing all requirements and stakeholders. To achieve the objectives of the project, the policy framework should:- Determine the size of the project, the project team and the location of the project Identify the status of the existing document and determine whether or not the existing document is compatible and the proposed project activities Determine the range of project activities within the specific project. Identify the level of activities within the project and the method of work allocation Determine the responsibilities and the commitment of the project management team. The policy framework should take into account structure to avoid overlapping and duplication design to provide a uniform simple format and facility for documentation of changes. Policy framework also ensures that all members of the project team have a job description and that they comprehend and understand their job well.  Criteria These are procedures organization use to decide with creative idea to support. This is because projects have different costs, benefits and risks. Project selection is usually a task of senior management as it’s the crucial part of project life because the success meets its goals. Relevance Project selection is one of the many decisions closely associated without project management. Decision aiding models are used to deal with all problems of relevance. Such models are needed because they abstract the relevant issues about a problem. It is said that realist cannot solve a problem but idealists can do. An idealist strips away almost all the reality from a problem leaving only the aspects of “real” situation without he/she wants to deal with. Reality is too far complex to deal with. The process of carrying away the unwanted reality from the bones of a problem is called modeling the problem. The model represents the problem structure i.e. the modeling foam. Projects are selected according to their relevance to the needs of the people or community. It is imperative to consider that the projects are relevant based on the situation on ground. Feasibility In project selection, a feasibility report is inevitable as it covers important areas in any report. The feasibility report covers The technical configuration of the project The performance requirement for