March 15, 2023

Definition of ethics: According to Stephen Perle 2004, ethics comes from the Greek word ethos meaning moral, character or custom. According to the Britannica Concise Encyclopedia, ethics is a branch of philosophy concern with the nature of ultimate value and the standards by which human actions can be judged right or wrong. According to the philosophy dictionary, the term ethics is derived from the Greek word (ethos), which means character. It is the study of the concepts involved in practical reasoning: good, right, duty, obligation, virtue, freedom, rationality, choice.   BRANCHES OF ETHICS 1. APPLIED ETHICS This branch of ethics seeks to address questions such as how a moral outcome can be achieved in a specific situation. Applied ethics, as the name applies, consists of the application of normative ethical theories to practical moral problems. Among the major fields ethics are bioethics, business ethics, legal ethics and medical ethics. Eg, the prohibition against taking human life is controversial with respect to capital punishment, abortion and wars of invasion. 2. NORMATIVE ETHICS This branch of ethics deals with how moral values should be determined. Normative ethics seeks to establish norms and standards of conduct ; a crucial question in this field is whether actions are to be judged right or wrong based on their consequences or based on their conformity to some moral rules such as DON NOT TELL A LIE . a typical question might be whether a lie was told for the sake of protecting someone fron harm is justified or not. 3. META ETHICS This branch of ethics deals with what the fundamental nature of ethics is or morality itself, including whether it has any objective justification. In meta-ethics, a key issue is the meaning of the terms right or wrong. Meta-ethics is concerned with the nature of ethical judgment and theories. DEFINITION OF MORALITY Morality means manner, character and proper behavior. Morality is looking at how good or bad our conduct is, and our standards about conducts. ROLE OF ETHICS IN SOCIETY Ethics has been applied to economics, politics, and political science, leading to several distinct and unrelated fields of applied ethics Ethics has been applied to family structure, sexuality and how society views the role of individuals Ethics has been applied to war, particularly to the justification of engaging in war, leading to positions such as pacifism, militarism and non-violence Ethics has been applied to analyze human use of earths limited resources. This has led to the study of environmental ethics and social ecology There are several sub branches of applied ethics examining the ethical problems of different professions such as business ethics, medical ethics, journalism ethics, engineering ethics, museum ethics and legal ethics. One of the areas where ethicists practice is in the field of health care. This include medicine, nursing, pharmacy, genetics and other allied health profesions.   IMPOTANCE OF NORMS IN SOCIETY A norm is a specific guideline for action. It is rule that says how people should behave in particular situation Norms enhance conformity among people because to violet the norm can damage their self esteem or hurt their conscience They help an individual to fit well in the society hence promote a sense of belonging FACTORS INFLUENCING ETHICS AND MORALS The political regime of a society Religion Literacy levels Socialization Economic structure Socio-cultural environment Peer group Mass media

Definition of social perception: In psychology and the cognitive sciences, perception is the process of acquiring , interpreting, selecting and organizing sensory information According to (Michener etal) social perception refers to the process through which we use available information to form impressions of other people to assess what they are like. Social perception can generally be defined as the perceiving of attributes, characteristics and behaviours of ones associates or social groups. According to Mark Ylvisaker, social perception includes three domains of competence; Knowing that other people have thoughts, beliefs, emotions, intensions, desires and the like. Being able to read other peoples inner states based on their words behavior, facial expressions and the like Adjusting ones actions based on those readings Social perception can be influenced by individuals Unique Perceptual Filters such as values, needs, goals, interest, beliefs, attitudes, expectations, wants, knowledge, feelings, language and education.   TYPES OF SOCIAL PERCEPTIONS The looking Glass Self This concept was creted by Charles Horton Cooley in 1902. This concept is based on the premise that a person views himself through other perceptions in society and in turn gains identity. There are three main components of the looking glass self:- We imagine how we must appear to others We imagine the judgment of that appearance We develop our selves through the judgment of others Apart from self perception, people also engage in perception of others who are in their environment   ROLE OF SOCIAL PERCEPTION IN SOCIALIZATION Social perception implies that a socially competent person can make note of other peoples facial expressions, tone of voice, posture, gestures, words, and the like and on the basis of these clues, make reasonable accurate judgments about that persons state of mind, emotions, and intentions. Social perception is one important component of social competence and social success (including peer acceptance and friendship). In addition to social perception, socially competent people must have knowledge of social rules, roles, routines and scripts in their social lives They also have a concern for other people and make it a habit to adjust their behavior based on the needs of others. Finally, they have the confidence needed to interact socially and accept the vulnerability associated with potential rejection.   IMPACT OF SOCIAL PERCEPTION ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Socially competent people then use the inferences about other peoples inner states to make good decisions about how to behave socially, hence this enables them to be able to fit in the society as well as exhibit acceptable human behavior.

Definition of social institution; A social institution consists of patterned behavior and status role relationships that fulfill certain basic societal needs. (Craig etal; 1994) Each society has its own social institutions. These are not buildings or places, but structures of relationship, obligation, role and function. Members of a society has similar mental concept of right and wrong, order and relationships and patterns of good  (positive values). Institutions are structures and mechanisms of social order and cooperation governing the behavior of two or more individuals. Institutions are identified with a social purpose and performance, transcending individual human live and intentions, and with the making and enforcing of rules governing cooperative human behavior. The institutions are commonly applied to customs and behavior patterns important to a society, as well as to particular formal organization of government and public service. They are centered to basic social needs, such as replacing personnel, preserving order, teaching new traits, producing and distributing goods and services, providing and maintaining a sense of purpose e.t.c. some of the social institutions include; family, the government, religion, education, economy and health care system. Social organization or social institution is a group of social positions, connected by social relations, performing a social role. It can also be defined in a narrow sense as any institution in a society that works to socialize the groups or people in it. Eg education, governments, families, economic systems, religions etc.   TYPES OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS Political Every society has an organizational principle, with authority figures, with defined roles and obligations. There are written or oral laws. Some societies are tightly knit, while others are very loosely organized. Economic This involves the production of goods and the organization of labour, the provision of care and similar factors, not just money, buying and selling. Every society has systems of provision or procurement. Economic and political institutions are related. Religious This entails beliefs about the world, universal order and good, spirituals beings and power, as well as rituals and ceremonies. For many people, religion is not separated into a separate sphere of life but is part of the fabric of the society. Political and religious institutions are often related. This may involve religious ceremonies of cultural identity. Linguistic Language usages may involve role and function, affecting social identity or status, so can be considered institutions. There are often subtle but significant meanings in the languages used or choice of words used in certain situations or topics. Educational Even in primitive societies, there are highly developed methods of conveying knowledge and values. These methods will affect reception of new ideas. The effective communicator learns and uses the insider formats and channels. Aesthetic (art and architecture) The artistic self-expressions of people become part of their cultural identity. These are also communication media.                          DEFINITION OF SOCIAL INTERACTION Social interaction is the process of people orienting themselves to others and acting in response to what others say and do. Social interaction is purposive in the sense that people act and react to each other in their pursuit of goals. (Craig etal 1994) According to R. J. Rummel, social interactions are the acts, actions or practices of two or more people mutually oriented towards each others self. This means that the parties to the social interaction must be aware of each other/ have each others self in mind. Social interaction is a dynamic, changing sequence of social actions between individuals or groups who modify their actions and reaction according to the actions by their interaction partners.   Forms of Social interaction: 1. Accidental:- This form of social interaction is not planned is is not likely to be repeated. Eg asking a stranger for directions or shopkeeper for product availability. 2. Repeated:- This form of social interaction is not planned, and is bound to happen from time to time. Eg accidentally meeting a neighbor from time to time when walking on your street. 3. Regular:- This form of social interaction is not planned, but very common, and likely to raise questions when missed. 4. Regulated:– This form of social interaction is planned and regulated by customs or law, and will definitely raise questions when missed such as interaction in a work place (coming to work, staff meetings, playing a game et.c), family meeting.   FACTORS INFLUENCING SOCIAL INTERACTION The focus here is what makes people get interested in interacting with each other. We will therefore look at the several general principles that have been discovered by researchers in social psychology in this area. They include the following;- 1. Proximity:- Physical proximity increases attraction, as opposed to long distance relationships which are more at risk. 2. Familiarity:– Mere exposure to others increases attraction, even when the exposure is not consciously realized. 3. Similarity:- The more similar two people are in attitudes, background, and other traits, the more probable it is that they will like each other. Contrary to popular opinion, opposite do not attract. 4. Physical attractiveness:- It is the perception of the physical traits of an individual human person as pleasing or beautiful. 5. Propinquity:- Refers to the physical or psychological proximity between people 6. Reciprocal liking:- It is a psychological term to describe an effect where a person who is liked by another will tend to return that liking. It reflects the notion that people enjoy the company of those who give them positive feelings.   ROLE OF SOCIAL INSTITUTION IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Replacing personnel:- Any group or society must replace personnel when they die, leave or become incapacitated. Teaching new traits:- A group must encourage recruits to learn and accept its values and customs, either informally through interactions and negotiation in peer influence. Producing and distributing goods and services:- Any group that is relatively permanent must provide and distribute desired goods and services for its members. The group must satisfy the needs of most members to a large extent in order to avoid high degrees of disconnect, which may lead to disorder. Preserve order:- Maintaining order and protecting members

Definition of group dynamics: According to R. J. Rummel, a group is a casual and meaningful unity of individuals, unity based on shared meanings, values, norms and a structure of associated expectations. Group dynamics can be defined as the current patterns of social interaction among the members of a group. (Craig etal; 1994) Group dynamics is the study of groups and also the general term for group processes. In psychology and sociology, a group is a two or more individuals who are connected to each other in social relationships. Groups develop a number of dynamic processes that separate them from a random selection of individuals because they interact and influence each other. These processes include norms, roles, relations, development, need to belong, social influence and effects on behavior. The field of group dynamics is primarily concerned with small group behavior. Groups may be classified as aggregate, primary, secondary and category groups.   PROCESS OF GROUP FORMATION Bruce Tuckman (1965) proposed the 4- stage model called Tuckmans stages for a group. Tuckmans model states that the ideal group decision making process should occur in four stages. Tuckman later added a fifth stage for the dissolution of a group called adjourning (adjourning may also be referred to as mourning i.e mourning the adjournment of the group) 1. FORMING In this stage, the team members are introduced. They state why they were chosen or volunteered for the team and what they hope to accomplish within the team Members cautiously explore the boundaries of acceptable group behavior. This is often difficult in identifying some of the relevant problems as there is so much going on that members get restricted. The team often accomplishes little concerning its goals. 2. STORMING All members have their own ideas as to how the process should look and personal agendas are often rampant. Storming is probably the most difficult stage for the team. They begin to realize the tasks that are ahead are different and more difficult than they previously imagined. Impatient about the lack of progress, members argue about just what actions the team should take. They try to rely solely on their personal and professional experience and resist collaborating with most other team members Storming includes these feelings and behavior: Resisting the task Resisting quality improvement approaches suggested by other members Sharp fluctuation in attitude about the teams chances of success. Arguing among members, even when they agree on the real issues Defensiveness, competition and choosing sides Questioning the wisdom of those who selected the project and appointed the members of the team. Establishing unrealistic goals   3. NORMING The norming phase is when the team reaches a consensus on the To-Be process. Everyone wants to share the newly found focus. Enthusiasm is high, and the team is often tempted to go beyond the original scope of the process. During this stage, members reconcile competing royalties and responsibilities. They accpt the team, ground rules, roles and individuality of fellow members. Emotional conflict is reduced as previously competitive relationships become more cooperative. Norming includes these feeling and behavior: An ability to express criticism constructively Acceptance of membership in the team An attempt to achieve harmony by avoiding conflict Friendliness, confiding in each other and sharing of personal problems A sense of team cohesion, spirit and goals Establishing and maintaining team ground rules and boundaries Norms should include:- Conflict resolution mechanisms The group valus Personality differences and how to make good use of them Work production mechanism Standards and expectations for communication   4. PERFORMING By now the team has settled its relationship and expectations. They can begin performing by diagnosing, problem solving and implementing changes At least, team members have discovered and accepted others strengths and weaknesses. In addition, they have learned what their roles are. Performing includes these feelings and behaviours; Members have insights into personal and group process An understanding of each others strength and weakness Constructive self-change Ability to prevent or work through group problems Close attachment to the team The team is now an effective and cohesive unit. You can tell when your team has reached this stage because you start getting a lot of work done. 5. ADJOURNING The team briefs and shares the improved process during this phase. When the team finally completes that last briefing, there is always a bittersweet sense of accomplishment coupled with the reluctance to say good-bye. Many relationships formed within these teams continue long after the team disbands   TYPES OF GROUPS There are several kinds of groups from a sociological perspective: In-groups:- an in-group is one with which one identifies with and feels at home in. Out-groups:- an out-group is one with which does not identify with and towards which he/she feels like an outsider Primary groups:- primary groups are those in which the relationships are closely-knit. Charles Horton Cooley (1909-1929) described a primary group as one that has the following features: Condition face-to- face interaction Strong personal identity with the group Strong ties of affection among the group members Multifaceted relationship A tendency for the group to be very enduring The nuclear family is an ideal primary group Secondary group:- secondary groups have the oposit characteristics of primary groups; They include:- Limited face-to-face interaction Modest or weak personal identity with the group Weak ties of affection among members Limited, shallow relationship A tendency not to be enduring A student committee could be an ideal secondary group.   Reference groups:- these are groups that people refer to when they evaluate their own behavior; though they may not necessarily belong to them. They serve two purposes, providing standards of self evaluation and for evaluation of life situations. According to R,J. Rummel, in hie article groups and anti-fields groups can also be classified as follows:- Spontaneous:- these types of groups develop as an informal balancing of positive interests of individuals. They may be solidary or contractual, unorganized, and have diffuse goals. Moreover, recruitment is voluntary and authoritative roles emphasize authoritative power eg family, book exchange club, and

Definition of socialization Socialization can be defined in different ways: Socialization is a process of instilling fundamental elements of culture in the members of a society. It is one of the basic forces that shape human social behaviour as well as inherited behaviour (Craig etal 1994) Socialization can also be defined as the process by which people interact with others to learn the ways of their culture in order to function well within it. The term socialization used by sociologists, social psychologists and educationalists to refer to the process of learning ones culture and how to live within it. For the individual it provides the resources necessary for acting and participating within their society. For the society inducting all individual members into its moral norms, attitude, values, motives , social roles, language and symbols is the means by which social and cultural continuity are attained. PROCESS OF SOCIALIZATION Socialization is the process through which by contact with other human beings, one becomes a self-aware, knowledgeable human being, skilled in the ways of a given culture and environment. Socialization is particularly important during early childhood Without socialization in the first few years of life, people would not become social beings. Socialization is however not confined to childhood. It proceeds throughout life and is especially important during the many transitions that one is likely to meet in life. Sometimes the learning is fun. As in when we learn a new sport, art or musical technique from a friend we like. At another time, social learning is painful as when we learn not to drive too fast by receiving a large fine for speeding. Socialization is particularly important during childhood because without it, it would hard to become social beings. Socialization always take place in social relationships in which even young children are active participants. It is through socialization that we develop our most basic ideas of who we are as individuals and how we relate to other people around us. Although socialization is mainly an issue of childhood and adolescence, it is a continuous process that goes on throughout ones life time. Natural socialization occurs when infants and young stars explore, play and discover the world around them. Natural socialization is easily seen when looking at the young of almost all mammalian species (and some birds). Planned socialization occurs when other people take actions designed to teach or train others—from infancy on. Planned socialization is mostly a human phenomenon; and all through history, people have been making plans for teaching or training others. Both natural and planned socialization can have good and bad features. Its wise to learn the best features of both natural and planned socialization and weave them into our lives. Positive socialization is the type of social learning that is based on pleasurable and exciting experiences. We tend to like the people who fill our social learning process through positive motivation, loving care and rewarding opportunities. Positive socialization coupled with valuable information about life and the skills needed to live well can be a powerful tool for promoting human development We all have an enormous human potential, and we all could develop a large portion of it if we had the encouragement that come with positive socialization and th wisdom that comes with valuable information about living. Negative socialization occurs when others use punishment, harsh criticisms or anger to try to teach us a lesson and often we come to dislike both negative socialization and the people who impose it us. Human infants are born without any culture. They must be transformed by their parents and teachers. The general process of acquiring culture is referred to as socialization. During socialization we learn the language of the culture we are born into as well as the roles we are to play in life. For instance, girls learn how to be daughters, sisters, sisters, friends, wives and mothers. In addition they learn about occupational roles that their society has in store for them. We also learn and usually adopt our cultures norms through the socialization process. Norms are the conceptions of appropriate and expected behaviour that are held by most members of the society. Socialization is important in the process of personality formation. While much of human personality is the result of our genes, the socialization process can mold it in a particular direction by encouraging specific beliefs and attitudes as well as selectively providing experiences. Successful socialization can result in uniformity within a society. If all children receive the same socialization, it is likely that they will share the same beliefs and expectations. This fact has been a strong motivation for national governments around the world to standardize education and make it compulsory for all children. Deciding what things will be taught and how they are taught is a powerful political tool for controlling people. Those who internalize the norms of society are less likely to break the law or to want radical social changes. In all societies, however, there are individuals who do not conform to culturally defined standards of normalcy because they have not internalized the norms of society. These people are usually labeled by their society as deviants or even mentally ill. Socialization is a learning process that begins shortly after birth. Early childhood is the period of the most intense and the most crucial socialization. It is then we acquire language and learn the fundamentals of our culture. Its also when much of the personalities take shape. however, we continue to be socialized throughout our lives. Henslin (1999), contends that an important part of socialization is the learning of culturally defined gender roles. Gender socialization refers to the learning of behaviour and attitudes considered appropriate for a given sex. Booys learn to be boys and girls learn to be gorls. The family is certainly important in reinforcing gender roles, but so are ones friends, school, work and the mass media                                       FORMS OF SOCIALIZATION They include the following Primary socialization Secondary socialization Development socialization

Definition of culture: Culture is the language, norms, values, beliefs, knowledge and symbol that make up a way of life. It is the understanding of how to act that people share with one another in any stable, self-reproducing group. The concept of culture is used to describe the distinctive way of life of a nation or people. There are two main aspects of culture according to sociologists: Material culture:- this consists of all the physical objects or artifacts that people make and attach the meaning to such; books, clothing, furniture etc. Non-material culture:- this consists of human creations that are not embodied in physical objects such as values, norms, knowledge, language etc.   COMPONENTS OF CULTURE The particular content of culture varies from place to place, but all human cultures have the same basic elements, which include: Knowledge Language Symbols Values Norms Artifacts   SYMBOLS This refers to objects, sounds, gestures or images that represent something other than themselves. Symbols do not necessarily look alike. In most cases they are contextual. LANGUAGE A language is system of verbal and written symbols with rules about how these symbols can be strung together to convey more complex meanings. Language enables people to store meaning and experiences and to pass this heritage to new generations. VALUES A value is a general idea that people share about what is good and what is bad, desirable or undesirable. Values can also be said to be the internalized standards against which we evaluate behaviour and therefore used to provide the framework within which people in a society develop norms of behaviour. A value system therefore differentiates right feelings, thought and behaviour from wrong feelings, thought and behaviour. Value systems can and very often do grow out of belief systems, eg one could argue that the value system behind good Samaritan Law is a direct descendant of the Christian belief systems. Values vary from place to place and even within cultures, there are subcultures. BELIEFS Belief systems involve stories, or myths whose interpretation can give people insights in to how they should feel, think and or behave. The most prominent systems of beliefs tend to be those associated with formal religions; however, any system of belief in which the interpretation of stories affects peoples behaviours —–a system of superstition for example —–can be a living contribution component of a given societys culture NORMS A norm is a specific guideline for action. It defines how people should behave in particular situations. Sometimes norms are made explicit, as in written laws, but more often they are unspoken customs that people implicitly know and follow. Norms can also be said to be the rules that govern behaviour in particular contexts and they also vary from group to group. Norms vary in the importance that people assign to them and in the way they react to violations. There are two main types of norms: Folkways:- these are norms that are simply everyday habit. People therefore obey them without giving much thought to them, and even those who violet them are just tolerated, eg covering the mouth when yawning is an example of a folkway.  Mores:– these are the norms which people consider vital to their well being and to their most cherished values. Those who violet the mores are considered unfit for society and may be subjected to punishment of some kind depending on their society. Prohibition against incest is an example of a more. KNOWLEDGE This refers to the body of facts, beliefs and practical skills that people accumulate over time. Not all knowledge takes the form of information that can be explained in words or formulas or that can be written down and stored. Much practical knowledge is largely non-verbal. (Craig etal 1994)   THE ROLE OF CULTURE ON SOCIAL CHANGE Social change is the alterations over time, in behaviour pattern, culture and structure of a society. Social change includes the enduring and fundamental transformations of human societies. Social change occurs in all aspects of life and it affects both the every day patterns of social interaction (Craig etal 1994)   PROCESS OF ACCULTURATION Acculturation has different meanings, but in this context, it refers to replacement of the traits of one culture with those of another, such as happened in certain Native American tribes and to many indigenous people across the globe during the process of colonization. Related processes on an individual level include assimilation (adoption of a different culture by an individual) Trans-culturation on the other hand is the two-way exchange of cultural traits between societies in close contact, eg the current cultural landscape of Mexico is the result of a mixing of the earlier Amerindian cultures and the Spanish culture of the Europe colonists. The result is an entire new culture.   IMPACT ON CULTURE ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT It is generally accepted that human beings are a uniquely cultural species, since they are the only species that has developed the capacity for complex symbolic communication about the world, as well as the capacity to create tools and institutions based on that complex symbolic understanding. According to Clifford Geertz (1973), the culminating phase of human biological evolution was intimately intertwined with the development of language and other basic forms of culture. Culture as a symbolic media of communication is neither static nor homogeneous, but it is shared (ORTEGA Y GASSET, 1957). From an anthropological perspective, culture is the sum total of societys symbolic operating systems and the basis for its ecological adaptation to the environment. According to Arthur (2001), the evolution of a post-modern multicultural society places a premium on increased understanding of issues surrounding culture and ethnic identity. Anthropology has traditionally defined culture as the sum total of artifacts (language, customs, tools/technology, institutions etc), that make up a human society. From the psychological perspective, it is useful to focus on the process of symbolic communication that sanction the coherence of human societies and enable them to evolve such as variety of artifacts Looked at from the

Definition of Environment: Environment is a terminology that comprises all living and non-living things that occur naturally on earth or some part of it. Eg the natural environment in a country. This term include few key components Complete ecological units that function as natural systems without massive human intervention, including all vegetation, animals, microorganisms, rocks, atmosphere and natural phenomena that occur within their boundaries. Universal natural resources and physical phenomena that lack clear cut boundaries such as air, water and climate as well as energy, radiation, electric charge and magnetism; not originating from human activity. TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTS Shared environment:- this refers to a set of conditions or experiences that is shared by children raised in the same family with each other. This is normally used in carrying out studies of individual differences. Non-shared environment:- this refers to a set of conditions or activities that is experienced by one child in a family and not shared with another child in the same family. According to (Reiss etal 1991), children raised in the same family have both shared and non-shared experiences. The conditions shared would include such factors as being poor or well off, living in good or bad neighborhoods and having parents who are employed or unemployed, in good health or physically or mentally ill. The experiences not shared in contrast would include factors or events related to the individual characteristics of a particular child eg what specific activities that a child engages in, or how he/she is treated because of age, gender, temperament, illness or physical and cognitive abilities. (Hetherington 1990) IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENT ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Not only does the environment influence genes, but genes also influence the environment to which people are exposed. Eg parents with certain genetic predispositions can create a home environment that suits those predispositions and which also suits and encourage the inherited predisposition of their children. Peoples inherited tendencies can also evoke environmental influence from others. During the course of development, the genotype interacts with the environment in complex ways to produce the phenotype Genotype in this case refers to the particular set of genes that a person inherits from his/her parents. Phenotype on the other hand is what is created by the interaction of a persons genotype or genetic make-up with the environment. It is the visible expression of the persons particular physical and behavioural characteristics. (Hetherington 1995)

Definition of society: There are several definitions of a society, and they are as follows: It is a grouping of individuals which is characterized by common interest and may have distinctive culture and institutions.. Members of the society may be from different ethnic groups. It may also refer to an organized voluntary association of people for religious benevolent, cultural, scientific, political, patriotic, or other purposes. A society refers to a particular community of people living in a country or region, and having shared customs, laws and organizations. according to Muhammed Noor ; society is a group of people who have the same interests politically and purpose, vision and gains In political science, the term is often used to mean totality of human relationships generally in contrast to the state ie the apparatus of rule or government within a territory. The state means that summation of privillages and dominating positions which are brought into being by extra economic power, while society is the totality of concepts of all purely natural relations and institutions between man and man.   Characteristics of society A society has a definite geographical location, it persists over a long period of time, its relatively self sustaining, and independent and its people have organized social relationships. Societies are believed to have evolved over through several stages independently in different paths and this therefore means that societies have got different forms. Basically this is because the organization and the grouping of people together are determined by various variables such as language, religion, cultural orientation, geography and status among others. Society evolved as a form of adaptive mechanism where members operate and interact with each other for mutual benefit. This cooperation is necessary in several ways including reproduction, child rearing, food gathering and defense among others. Modern social rules encourage individuality and separation. Social touching is increasingly forbidden as a suspected sexual advance. The right of the individuals often takes precedence over society. Capitalism has largely defeated communism. We are progressively more alone. Individuals in society are not free agents as they are constrained by social rules. In practice, individual and society are closely intertwined and interdependent. Individuals can be viewed as separate and independent of society. They may be viewed as being contained within it. When within it, they can be seen as having a clear boundary and interacting with similar others. The boundaries and standards of society are defined by the rules of a society which are many. Rules can be formal (the law) and informal (moral and social norms). According to Peter Blau, societies defer in their degree of heterogeneity (how the population is distributed among such categories as sex, race, religion and ethnicity). He also argues that societies differ in their degree of inequality (how people are ranked by wealth, income or power). Blau adds that a high degree of heterogeneity promotes inter-group relations, such as inter-marriages, because with the population spread out evenly among a variety of ethnic, racial and religious categories, it provides more opportunities for contact with people from different categories and this may develop into social relationships.                                      EVOLUTION OF SOCIETIES Gerhard Lenski, a sociologist, differentiates societies based on their level of technology, communication and economy and classifies them as follows; hunters and gatherers simple agricultural advanced agricultural industrial                                                 Types of societies      According to the sociology guide, there are many types of society. The following are some of those types of society and their characteristics. 1. Hunting and gathering societies:- These are societies which mainly rely on hunting, fishing, trapping and gathering for their food supplies. 2. Horticultural societies:- These are societies which mainly rely on crops grown on land for their food. They mainly take part in clearing and burning of bushes to facilitate cultivation. They cultivate crops with the aid of digging sticks or hoes and they are limited in technology. 3. Pastoral societies:- These are societies which mainly rely on domesticated animals for their livelihood. 4. Agrarian societies:- These societies also rely on crops grown on land using the plough technique. The invention of plough marked the beginning of agrarian societies 6000 years back. According to Collins, definition of sociology agrarian society refers to any form of society especially the traditional society primarily based on agricultural and craft production rather than industrial production. Wallace and Wallace described agrarian societies as employing animal drawn ploughs to cultivate the land. The mode of production of agrarian society that is cultivation distinguishes it from the hunter-gatherer society which produces none of its food. It increases the productivity of land through the use of animals and bringing to the nutrients of the soil Irrigation techniques with the use of plough increased the productivity and it also brought fallow land under cultivation. It led to establishment of more elaborate political institutions like government bureaucracy assisted by the legal system. It provides the basis for the establishment of economic institutions. It also demand s the maintenance of transactions, crop harvest, taxation, governmental rules and regulations 5. Industrial societies:- Are societies that began to emerge during the industrial revolution. Their economy is based on industrialization for production of its goods and services. Industrial mode of production began 250 years ago in Britain and from there it spread to the entire world. In the simplest sense an industrial society is a social system which focuses primarily on finished goods manufactured with the aid of machinery. According to Wallace and Wallace in industrial society the largest portion of the labour force is in mechanized production of goods and services. Industrial societies are in continual state of rapid change due to technological innovations. It productivity stimulates population growth where people live in cities and urban areas. New medical technologies and improved living standards serve to extend life expectancy. The division of labour becomes complex with the availability of specialized jobs. The family and kinship as social institutions are relegated to the background. There is breakup of joint family system and nuclear family unit become prominent. The

Definition of psychology; Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental process. It can involve both animal and human behaviour (Richard 1995) Psychology is the systematic study of human and animal behaviour. Psychology is also the study of how humans learn or adapt successfully to its environment. This is the study of how social conditions affect human beings. It is the scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings and behaviours are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of others. By this definition, scientific refers to the empirical method of investigation. The term thoughts, feelings and behaviours include all of the psychological variables that are measurable in human beings. The state that others may be imagined or implied suggests that we are prone to social influence even when no other people are present such as when watching television, or following internalized cultural norms. Scholars in this field are generally either psychologists or sociologists, though all social psychologists employ both the individual and the group as their units of analysis. A significant number of social psychologists are sociologists. Their work has a greater focus on the behaviour of the group, and thus examines such phenomena as interactions and exchanges at micro-level group dynamics, group development and crowds at the micro-level. Sociologists are interested in the individual, but primarily within the extent of larger situations and processes, such as social roles, race class and socialization. They use a combination of qualitative research designs and highly quantitative methods such as procedures in sampling and surveys. Social psychologists typically explain human behavior as a result of the interaction of immediate social situations. In general social psychologists have a preference for laboratory test empirical findings. Their theories tend to be specific and focused, rather than general.   CONCEPTS OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY The main concepts in social psychology include the following; Attitude and attitude change social cognition self concept social influence group dynamics conformity violence and aggression interpersonal attraction pro-social behaviour prejudice discrimination 1. Attitude and Attitude Change According to Richard (1995)-An attitude is a predisposition to react in a particular ways towards specific things. It has three main elements: a belief or opinion about something feelings about that thing a tendency to act towards that thing in certain ways Attitudes are involved in virtually all other areas of the discipline including conformity, interpersonal attraction, social perception and prejudice. In social psychology attitude is defined to as learned, global perception of a person, object, place or issue that influence thought and action. More simply; attitudes are basic expressions of approval or disapproval, favourability or infavourability or as Bem (1970) puts it, likes and dislikes. Examples would include liking of chocolate ice cream, being anti-abortion or endorsing the values of a particular political party. General psychologists study attitude formation, the structure of attitudes, attitude change, the reaction of attitudes and the relationship between attitudes and behaviour. Social psychologists are interested in the components of attitudes, how attitudes develop and how attitudes change. Social Cognition This is the study of how people process social information, especially it encoding, storage, retrieval and application to social situations. Social cognition is a growing area of social psychology that study how people perceive, think about and remember information about others. One assumption in social cognition is that reality is too complex to easily discern and so we see the world according to simplified schemes or images of reality. Attribution Another major concept is attribution. Attributions are the explanations we make for peoples behaviours; either our own behaviour or the behaviour of others. An attribution can be either internal or external. Internal or dispositional attributions assign causality to factors within the person such as ability or personality. External or situational attributions assign causality to an outside factors such the weather. Self Concept This is a persons understanding to his or herself. The self concept can be divided into a cognitive component known as the self-schema, and an evaluative component, the self-esteem. The need to maintain a steady self-esteem is recognized as a central human motivation in the field of social psychology. People develop their self concept by a variety of means; including introspection, feedback form others, self perception and social comparison. By comparison to relevant others, people gain information about themselves, and they make inferences that are relevant to self-esteem. Social comparison can be upwards or downwards ie comparison to people who are either high in status or ability, or lower in status or ability. Downward comparisons are often made in order to elevate self-esteem. Social Influence Social influence refers to the way people affect the thoughts, feelings and behaviour of others. Like the stdy of attitudes; it is a traditional, core topic in social psychology. In fact research on social influence overlaps considerably with the research on attitudes and persuasion. Social psychologists are also interested in the role that social influence has on behaviour and decision making. Topics such as the psychology of persuasion, peer pressure, conformity and obedience are just a few of those studied in this area of social psychology. Conformity Conformity is the most common and pervasive form of social influence. It is generally defined as; the tendencies to act or think like other members of a group. Group size, unanimity, cohesion, status and prior commitment all help to determine the level of conformity in an individual. Two major motives in conformity are: Normative influence- this refers to the tendency to conform in order to gain social acceptance and avoid social rejection or conflict, as in peer pressure. Informational influence-this is based on the desire to obtain useful information through conformity and there by achieve a correct or appropriate results.   Group dynamics A group is two or more people that interact, influence each other, and share common identity. Group dynamics refers to the occurrence of recurred patterns of social interaction. Groups have a number of emergent qualities that distinguish them from aggregates. Some of these include: Norms:– these are implicit rules and expectations for group

INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY – Click to view INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIETY – Click to view ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT – Click to view CULTURE AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT – Click to view SOCIALIZATION AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT – Click to view GROUP DYNAMICS – Click to view SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS AND SOCIAL INTERACTION – Click to view SOCIAL PERCEPTION – Click to view ETHICS AND MORALITY – Click to view

Meaning of evaluation It refers to assessment appraisal, examination and judgement. It is a process which asses for to determine and systematically and objecting as possible that effectiveness, efficiency an impact of the activity. Therefore to evaluate, to drive, productive efficiency to meet specific objective. During the policy implementation process at the end of the implementation evaluation take place, evaluation is an important process without which policy implementer may not know if they are assisting the target group to solve the problem that also set for or not Importance of evaluation It creates a sense of confidence in donors especially when evaluation results are positive To be able to determine the effectiveness of policy that is did the policy achieved and objectives or purpose. To be able to determine the efficiency of a policy that is determined whether the policy was caused effective in terms of bringing about more advantages or benefits than disadvantages It leads to creation of good relation between implementing agencies and the members of the public It helps in determining the factor that lead to either success or failure of a given program   Evaluation Technique Cost effective analysis Cost refers to: the price, the value, the amount e.t.c. To be effective is to be competent, Qualifies able e.t.c,To analyze is to get a breakdown a subdivision or a separation  generally,cost effectiveness is method of evaluation whereby  we draw a graph or a table and compare the cost value of our activity and the benefit or effectiveness of that activity. There are two types of evaluation Ongoing evaluation / process evaluation Product evaluation / end evaluation   1. Ongoing evaluation This involves assessing social policies during the process of implementation 2. Product  evaluation This technique carried out at the end of the programme   Other technique styles 1. Project profile – this is the outline or the model of the project from the beginning to the end to evaluate each stage i.e. felting per requirement of the model 2. Stamping evaluation – those committee appointed by management by whom they meet frequently at regular interval the members and specialists in their work. They identify the problem which require urgent attention they look at alternative solution and suggest the way forward to manage Formal or informal periodical report Informal report are casual, unofficial or mostly not written formal and submitted at specific period of time are highly applied upon for purpose of evaluation Post benefit analysis It refers to the price value or amount of resources incur in the implementation of a policy. If the cost is more that the benefit it is not working as to implement such policies System analysis This involves checking the level of community participation in the process of implementing agencies must work in collaboration with the community members   DETERMINATION OF EFFECTIVENESS There are several ways of determining the effectiveness of policy. This can be done by looking the following factors;  1. Achievement of setting goals or objectives This tries to find out if the goals that were set to be achieved have been achieved. If yes we sat the policy was effective and if no it was not effective.  2. Participation of community members and sustainace of programmes We try to find out if the target group participated in the programme and if the project can be left beyond who initiated in that it can survive on it. Own and if yes that project was effective 3. Clientele satisfaction This are customer user programme we try to find out if their need were met through our programme, if yes the process was effective and vise versa  4. By checking extend to which the problem is solved We try to find out how far the difficulty or problem was tended to it or sorted out in that extend it shows that programme was effective.

Administration It is the process through which social policy is implemented or executed. It is a process through which the total activities of an organization or a country are directed towards goals and objectives. Also a process of organizing resources to get the work done in relation to the set aims and objectives Key players in policy administration / who is involved 1. Legislators In Kenya a parliament is made up of the president and the national assembly. The parliament has legislative powers of the state. They have the power to formulate and administer social policy through provision of resources and laying down the necessary plans. 2. Executive In Kenya it is made up of the president and the provision administration arm of the government. In the minister of that ministry the civil servant implements policies which have been formulated by the government and there is no way they can change those policies. 3. Judiciary It includes charges of court and officials such as magistrate who are specialized. They are mainly concern with enforcement of law through a medium court. It needs to be just so that the implementation of the law is implemented in the line with the other law. 4. Bureaucrats Policies are administered through various organization e.g. private sectors, NGO and missionary organization. 5. Pressure group They act as watchdog of policy implement that use all ways means i.e. lobbying, advocacy and rallies to compel the concern to administer policies as they are supported NB – the pressure group may complain on behalf of the citizens in case the government is reluctant to carry out its obligation in the provision of social services.   ORGANIZATION OF IMPLEMENTING AGENCIES The categorization of the implementing agencies is important in the implementation of social polices. Organization can be categorized into different groups in which are formal in nature. It includes; Normative Organization This organization is controlled by norms and values and people join them because they have similar goals to this they believe in this organization have voluntary membership and highly concerned and committed to the purpose and objectives. Policies are implemented though such formal organization and social unit like human are deliberately constructed and reconstructed to seek specific goals. Cohesive organization They use forces to control those of the bottom structure; people join them because they have no choice force them physically. They do not submit to the rules and obey them they are punished. Members of the society are highly alienated from  such organization they include the police system and criminal justice system. Private sector They are small organization of the group of people they seek to implement policies that fit their interest e.g. on micro financing of small groups people join this organization voluntarily because they receive benefits from doing this, this organization uses money to control people and they do what the organization expect from them to do so because they have been paid for it, they include co-operative societies and private companies. Government organization They include the executive legislative and the judiciary they play a key role in the implementation of policies and their focus in political. The Non Governmental Organization Also known as welfare organization, they produce service and technical staff and give specific service to particular category of people. The organization stated by individual mostly to substitute government efforts in the provision of welfare services. Most of them are international organization, world vision, all work hand in hand with the government to give their services. IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS This process is the stage which involves translating of guidelines or putting policies into practice, it involves real action and establishment of project for the provision of goods and services Implementation activities There are three main activities involves in the implementation process; 1. Interpretation Under this activity the following factors should be considered 2. The nature of the problem Extends and sovereignty of the problem It involves summarizing the policy and getting through understanding of the policy which about to be implemented and qualified personnel is required to interpret the policy which is about to be implemented and qualified personnel is required to interpret the policy 3. Organization and administration The administrations have formal duties to control the subordinate by means of rules and laws enforcement. The policy implementer are the administrator they can be looked in elsewhere if they are not available in the country thus there must be enough to allow smooth implementation of policy 4. Application This is the putting policy into effect. Policies that are implemented have unique factors but there are some common elements that demand attention. The basic qualities of application include authority and powered to make implement decision also performance indicator is another quality It involves establishing procedure so as to access progress of your policy.   MODEL OF POLICY IMPLEMENTING PROCESS Types of models Elite model – policy is a reflection of the interest of these people within society that have the most powerful rather than demand of the masses Group model – the political system role is to establish and enforce compromise between various conflicting interests in the society Rational model – policy is intended to achieve maximum social goals rationally, the policy that maximize benefits while maximizing cost is the best policy Institutional model – public policy is determined by political institution which gives policy legitimacy; government universally applies approach to the citizens of society and no monopolies or use of force in applying policy Factors influencing success of social policy implementation 1. Participation level of decision making process Here every person must be involved in decision making especially the beneficiaries, the implementer, the beneficiaries’ makers’ .While the need assessment the beneficiaries are to state clearly in terms of priority. What needs are and what they want .done with these needs if they are not involved, there will be problems in implementation because they may not support the programs. 2. Simplicity of the programs For the program to succeed, the process used must be simple,