March 16, 2023

ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT KNEC NOTES – Click to view COMMUNITY HEALTH KNEC NOTES – Click to view HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT KNEC NOTES – Click to view INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY KNEC NOTES – Click to view LAW IN SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT WORK KNEC NOTES – Click to view SOCIAL POLICY AND ADMINISTRATION KNEC NOTES – Click to view

Pertaining to community based development Today there are procedures to facilitate wider participation in social services There has been greater decentralization of government decision making which has boosted community based development activities There are legal frameworks which allow people’s participation Social workers today help to shape up local leadership skills they are more involved in running non-governmental projects There is increased community ownership of development programs since they are involved through participation Communication and understanding especially among rural community has been enhanced Job opportunities have been created There has been improved technology hence leading to improved living standards There has been the promotion of innovation and the use of locally adaptable skills It has been an improvement of provision of services such as health, education through hospitals. Colleges, schools etc. There is provision of funds and other resources by both Governmental and Non-governmental and this has helped especially in humanitarian interventions and as well as projects implementation. Training is more available to the community development and social work professionals  Today communities are more dependent instead of relying on handouts provided by social workers Pertaining to Empowerment as a basis for social services Rural people’s internal capacities have been strengthened at local levels There is promotion of gender public awareness The rights of immigrants’ populations, refugees and IDPs have been guaranteed through education services, health care and other capacity building programs There is provision of information to individuals, families and groups There are today legal policy frameworks to increase people’s participation There are appropriate procedures and methods which facilitate wider participation in social services There is promotion of innovation and use of locally adaptable skills Job opportunities have been created for community members

This is the process that consists of planning, controlling, coordinating, directing etc. of social services. Types of social services Social services are activities aimed at bringing about social transformation and may include but limited to; Advocacy services, Case management services, Counseling services, Education services, Health services, Human management services, Community management and Anti-social activities management. Means and ways of managing social services Planning – is making of decisions on what is to be done, when to do it, how to do it etc. Organizing – is the arrangement of resources, both human and material in a productive manner. It includes identifying and defining work to be done. Staffing – is the process of selecting people to work and giving them responsibilities according to their competence. Documentation – is the keeping of records of the experiences encountered during social process. Decentralization of power and authority – social workers do this to ensure power is shared n the community where they work. Here, planning and implementation of social services is generally decentralized. Capacity building – social workers manage social services by providing skills and knowledge to members of the community. Promoting gender equality – social workers in managing their social services ensure there is no discrimination on the basis of sex among some people with whom they work. Promoting local institutions – social services can be managed by strengthening the capacity of local communities e.g. groups, women and local leadership.   Importance of managing social services Facilitates the process of decision making e.g. in terms of what, when, who to it as determined during planning Through planning of social services activities, a community is more capable of achieving a set of goals and objectives. It helps in identifying and assigning work trough out the processes It helps the social worker in selecting people to take up responsibilities according to their competencies It facilitates learning to the social worker, organizations and groups of people in the community through documentation of experiences during the social process. It enables the social worker to keep records of experiences encountered during the social work process for future references It promotes equality in decision making, planning and implementing of social services. It promotes power sharing amongst the community as a result of decentralization of power It promotes capacity building in social services activities through training which provides new skills and knowledge It promotes gender equality among members of a community It promotes local institutions e.g. family, group leadership It promotes effective management of resources especially if they are used in a productive manner Indigenous methods of managing social services Moral lessons were taught by the elder to young girls Village elders held and chaired meetings at the village level There was apprenticeship where young people were taught by experts in various fields Initiates were taught morality and cultural activities during initiation There was division of labour with boys performing different from those of girls Modern methods of managing social services There are training institutions where social workers are trained There have been pilot welfare schemes where social work is done on an intensive scale Groups are being formed among the youth, women etc. as avenues for social work There are ministries in the government charged with social work activities The government provides funds for social work activities Challenges in managing social services Poor leadership or incompetence among some other leaders Lack of financial resources Poor community participation leading to low sense of ownership Some cultural activities or practices do not approve social services Illiteracy among some members of community makes them take long to adopt new ideas or innovation provided by social worker Poor coordination between development agencies e.g. government, NGOs and the beneficiaries Some members of the community hold different opinion about new social services. This causes disunity amongst them hence hampering the provision of social services. Unfavourable political environment may derail proposed social services Government policies are sometimes unfavourable Management of challenges in managing social services Scarcity of social services can be overcome through soliciting people’s local contributions, fundraising and aid from NGOs and other agencies Community participation can be improved through mobilization of members to gain power and resources so as to participate meaningfully in managing social services activities Illiteracy among community members can be eliminated through relevant training to equip community members with new skills and knowledge. Those concerned with social service activities should be trained in documentation skills so as to facilitate proper record keeping Where the political environment is unfavourable the social service provider can mediate or arbitrate between conflicting groups in the community Negative cultural practices in the community can be eliminated by stressing the dangers of negative effects to the society Social workers can formulate projects to strengthen social bonds to brin

Methods used in Social Development activities Case work (individual work) According to Mary Richard social case work is a process which develops personality through adjustments or through consciously being affected by another individual. Others have defined case work as a method of measuring against reality, the client’s capacity to deal with a problem. Generally social case work involves the restoration of impaired capacity, provision of individual and social resources and prevention of dysfunction. Social case work does not give license to interfere with other people’s affairs and instead, it sanctions those activities which are directed by specific purposes and guided by values, knowledge and techniques. Characteristics of Social Case Work It has to do with an individual who has a problem, wants or needs and is seeking for help or assistance It aims at being helpful and not to hurt or harm The help arises partially from the helping agency and from resources of case worker (skills and knowledge) Assumptions of the Case Work process Human and social conditions are responsible to social interventions Problems may arise from environmental changes, individual inadequacy or from both The society and the context in which social case work is practiced affects definition, goal setting and strategy development. His / her attitude to change Termination – a decision by a case worker to accept to provide help to a client has within it the assumption that at some point the process of intervention will end. Termination as used in social work means the ending of a process that was commenced at the beginning of the intervention process. The process of study, assessment, intervention and termination never continue forever. A termination plan therefore needs to be considered by the social worker after consultation with the client.   Principles of Social Case Work Individualization This is the recognition of every human being‘s quality and is based on the rights of the human being to be. Acceptability Ideally the client should accept the worker and if client acceptance will not be in line with social work code of ethics, the worker should tell the truth. Non-judgemental This discourages the idea of condemning the characters of a person on prejudice. Purposeful expression of feelings This is the recognition of the need by the client to express his / her feeling especially the negative feelings Controlled emotional involvement The case worker should be sensitive to the client feelings, but the empathy must be controlled to avoid the social worker getting involved in an unprofessional relationship. Confidentiality This refers to the preservation of secret information concerning the client which is disclosed in the course of professional relationships.   Essential skills and techniques in Social Case Work Engagement This is the initial planned person to person contact between the client and the case worker. It involves seeking information form the client on the needs which are to be addressed. The social worker must therefore have tact and insight and also possess observation skills. Intake The client may be requested for or identified the service from the case worker. The social worker may also request the client to take up the service. The registration of the case is done and the determination is made whether the service is to be provided or not. The most important skills and attributes here are making assumptions, reasoning, bridging the gap and forecasting. Assessment or diagnosis This enables the case worker to understand and analyze the client’s skills. Good assessment must tell what the problem is, how it came about and its possible solutions. Diagnosis on the other hand is an attempt to arrive at an exact definition as possible of a social situation and personality of the person in need.   Methods or Models of Social Case Work Psycho-social model Problem solving model Behaviour modification model Family or group treatment model Crisis oriented r grief treatment model Adult socialization model The Psycho-social model This was one of the first models to be used in social work. It was initially developed by Paulo Fare. In Kenya, it was first used by the Catholic Church. Its application is based on identifying the cause and effect relationships between individuals and their environments. It is about how the social environment influences an individual’s psychological status. The problem solving model Is the simplest model whose main feature is the identification of the problem by the affected person (client) and the case worker and searching for solutions and making decisions. The Behaviour modification model The model mainly applies research to identify symptoms. Its proponents agree that symptoms may be the same as responses and that behaviour is mainly a result of response. That people behave the way they do because they are responding to stimuli. Behaviorists are also of the view that human behaviour is learned through the process of conditioning and can therefore be changed. The behaviour modification model seeks to modify (change) observable behaviour. The modification or change is what takes place through learning. Family or group treatment model This involves solving problems in small groups. It may be used when a client has a problem whose solutions may only be found when family, relatives or friends are involved. The family or small group is made aware of the problem and possible solutions and are then involved in making decisions regarding the best course of action. Crisis oriented or grief treatment model The model is best used to treat clients who have lost close relatives or friends. It’s most commonly used in counseling. Adult socialization model To socialize means to integrate into the society through the acquisition of values, norms etc. This model is also referred to as social integration and is mostly used with client’s whose ways are contrary to the norms or morals of society e.g. criminals, prostitutes, vagrants, drug addicts etc. Social group work method This is about solving people’s problems within the group level and involves working with them in groups. It is based on the knowledge of people’s need for each other and

The social work process is usually carried out in stages. Research This is the process of obtaining facts regarding social problems and their solutions. There are many different research methods applicable in the social work process. The basis research is that for one to act wisely in solving a problem he / she must know what realities can best be known through research. Planning A plan is the blue print of what one is to do, when and how to do it. Planning can be done by community leaders or social agencies. Coordination This is the process of working to avoid unnecessary duplication and conflict. It is joining together of people and agencies so as to strengthen each other thus making it possible to provide services that can not easily be done individually. Organization This is the process of establishing structures to solve social problems. It is the structures which consider the community needs, social problems and their solutions. Direction This is usually carried out by a combination of professionals and volunteers in committee. The process is a challenging one requiring careful consideration and planning. Administration This is the process of transforming social policies into social action or services. It involves carrying out plans and implementing the actions upon decisions have been made. For effective administration, all the staff must be actively involved. Administration must not be left to the leadership alone. Advocacy and social action This is where social workers act on other’s behalf when they encounter problems or dehumanizing conditions in the society. Committee operation Ideally, social work is best practiced through committees. It is in the committees where most of the planning and action takes place. Most new ideas are generated in committees from where they are transformed in social action.   The Importance of the Social work process The planning in the social work process helps the social worker identify a problem, who, how and when to solve it. Research helps the social worker and community to know more about problems and their solutions Through organizing, communities can set up committees to help them tackle their problems effectively Coordination, communities link with other agencies that assist them in solving their problems Through guidance and direction, community members are able to meet their needs more effectively Communities are better able to synthesize and put their policies into action with the help of effective administration The advocacy and social action carried out by social workers helps communities understand their rights in social development By operating through committees, communities are more able to carry out their social development better.

Ethics are rules of right and wrong behaviour. Ethical behaviour is behaviour is right according to a system of morals. Unethical behaviour on the other hand is that which goes against the system. Any set of rules for proper behaviour is known as a code of conduct. A code of conduct prescribes the behaviour of professionals in serving and protecting clients, colleagues, members of other professions and the society at large. The code of ethics for the social work profession has been developed by their professional body called the National Association of Social Workers. The N.A.S.W defines the code of ethics in the light of emergent practices and research findings. Values on the other hand are good and worthy behaviours that one should strive to develop in society.   Ethical values and principles of social work Ethical values and principles of social work are based on the core values of service, social justice, dignity and worth of the person, importance of human relations, intergrity and competence. The principles set forth the ideals to which all social workers should aspire.   Value: Social Justice Ethical principle: Social Workers challenge social injustice Social workers pursue social change particularly with and on behalf of vulnerable and oppressed individuals and groups of people. Social workers’ change efforts are focused on issues primary to poverty, unemployment, discrimination and other forms of social injustice. They strive to ensure equality of opportunity, access to resources and services for all people.     Value: Dignity and worth of the person Ethical principle: Social workers respect the inherent dignity and worth of the person. Social workers treat each person in a caring and respectful way and promote clients’ self determination.   Value: Intergrity Ethical principle: Social workers behave in a trustworthy manner. They act honestly and responsibly.   Value: Importance of human relationships Ethical principle: Social workers recognize the central importance of human relationships. They recognize tat relationships between and among people are important vehicles for change. They engage people as partners in the helping process seeking to strengthen relationship among them in a purposeful effort to promote, restore, maintain and enhance the well being of individuals, communities and families.   Value: Competence Ethical principle: Social workers practice within their areas of competence. They strive to enhance and develop their professional expertise and continually seek to increase their professional knowledge and skills and apply them in practice.   Ethical values Social workers’ ethical values can be identified in their ethical responsibilities to their clients, colleagues, the social work profession, the broader society and as professionals.   Social workers’ ethical responsibility to clients Commitment to clients The social workers’ primary responsibility is to promote the well being of clients. The clients’ interests are primary. However, social workers’ responsibility to the wider society or specific legal obligations may on some occasions supersede loyalty to clients. The clients must then be so advised. Self determination Social workers should respect and promote the right of a client to self-determination. However, social workers may limit clients’ rights to self determination where clients’ actions cause a serious foreseeable risk to themselves or others. Informed consent Social workers should provide services to clients only in the context of valid informed consent. They must in clear and understandable language, inform clients on issues about the purpose of services risks involved, costs, alternatives and right to refuse or accept service. Competence Social workers should provide services and represent themselves as competent only within the boundary of their education, training, certification, experience and license. They should not provide services in an area using technique new to them before engaging in appropriate study and supervision by competent people. Cultural competence and Social diversity They should understand culture and its functions in human behaviour in society organizing the strength and weakness that exist in all cultures. This means they should provide services sensitive to the client’s culture and understand cultural diversity with respect to race, ethnicity, national original, sex, age, marital status and religion. Conflict of interest Social workers should be alert to and avoid conflicts of interest. Protecting the client’s interests may require termination of the professional relationship with proper referral of the client. They should not take advantage of any professional relationship or exploit others further their personal business, interest, religion or political interests. Social worker should be clear to clients with whom they have common relationships clar ify their role and take appropriate action to minimize any conflict of interest. Privacy and confidentiality Social worker should respect client’s privacy and should not solicit private information from clients unless it is essential to providing services or conducting social work evaluation and research. Once private information has been shared, standards of confidentiality must apply. Social worker may also disclose confidential information without appropriate and valid consent from the client or a person legally authorized to give consent on behalf of the client. This however does not apply to information necessary to prevent serious foreseeable harm to the client or any other person or when the law requires disclosure without the client’s consent. They should therefore inform the client of the disclosure before it is made. The social worker should also inform the client of the policies regarding disclosure and should only disclose confidentiality in private and not in public areas. Access to record Social workers should provide clients with reasonable access to records concerning the clients and the confidentiality of individuals’ identity in the records should be protected. Physical cond Social worker should not engage in physical contacts with clients when there is possibility of psychological harm to the client. Sexual harassment Social workers should not harass clients sexually, which includes sexual advances, solicitation for sexual favours etc. Derogatory language Social workers should not use derogatory language in their written or verbal communication to or about clients. They should use accurate and respectful language in all communications to client. Payment for services When setting fees, social workers should ensure that their fees are fair, reasonable and commensurate. Consideration should

Characteristics of the Social work profession It deals with individuals and communities, who have problems, needs or wants and seeking for help or assistance. Social work aims at being helpful and not to hurt The help given by social work is usually given within the framework of social agencies The helping process is carried out between the helping person and the client The help arises partially from the helping agency and from the resources of the case worker Skills and competencies required by a social worker Creativity and innovation A social worker needs to be creative and innovative. He / she must be able to come up with new ideas as the situation may demand. Confidentialty The social worker should be one who is able to preserve secret information about the client which is disclosed in the professional relationship. Initiative The social worker ought to take the initiative in providing help to clients especially where the clients are reluctant to do the same. Non-judgemental A social worker should not have judgemental attitude. This discourages the idea of condemning the character of the person. It arises from the conviction of social workers not to assign levels of approval, innocence or guilt. Acceptablity Social worker should be one who is acceptable to the clients. This depends on the social worker’s other skills and competence. Resourcefulness Social workers should ideally be able to provide all the necessary information that may be useful in satisfying the needs of the clients. Leadership Social worker must possess and exhibit appropriate leadership skills and techniques. Communication skills A good social worker must possess the requisite communication skills that may enable him pass and receive information to and from the clients appropriately. Non emotional involvement While the social worker should be sensitive to the clients’ feelings, she / he should not be involved emotionally with the client. This involves objectively restraining or withholding ones feelings. Assessment / diagnosis The ability to which to assess and diago /nise a case enables the social worker and understands the client. The skills help the social worker know what the problem is, how it came about and its possible solutions.   Challenges in Social work Resources The material and financial resources required for social work activities are generally scarce. Human resources are however required in most social work projects or activities. Human resources may also sometimes be inadequate especially where training opportunities for social workers may not be available. The poor who the social deals with, have more needs than resources available can support ad because of the scarcity, some communities resolve to conflicts. This is a challenge to the social worker who has to arbitrate and solve such conflicts. Resource management has also sometimes been a challenge to social workers because not all stakeholders can manage the resources well.   Problems Poor infrastructure like roads hinders social worker to reach some parts of the community which are in accessible. Poor participation in decision making or communal activities by the community hinders the effects of social work Hostility that social workers receive from communities leads to failure to carry out their work effectively. This may occur as a result of lack of the required skills and competence. Communication problem such as language barriers tat result due to differences in modes of language that leads to distortion of information between the social worker and the community. Poor leadership structure in the community leads to mismanagement of projects; hence collapse of such projects. This often demoralizes the effort put by the social work. Lack of required skills and knowledge due to limited training on the part of the social worker. This limits their success in carrying out services to the community. Environmental challenges These prohibit the social worker from reaching all clients and may include the topographic nature of a place, climate etc.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SOCIAL WORK Evolution of social work in developed countries The idea of charity as practiced in social work dates back to ancient times. The practice of providing for the poor is found in most major world religions. However, the practice and profession of social work in the scientific sense has a recent origin. In Europe, charity was considered to be a responsibility and a sign of one’s godliness. It was originally in the form of direct relief to the less fortunate e.g. giving food, clothes or money. In England, a law was even developed specifically for the poor. This law provided for remedies for the less fortunate. The 19th century brought with a leap in science and technology which led to migration of people from rural to urban areas. This resulted into many social problems that culminated into an increase in social activism. During this time, some missionaries got assistance especially from protestant denominations to work in urban areas to try and solve problems. They worked especially through direct relief to alleviate these problems. Around the same time, Rescue Society came up with attempts to find means for self help. Mental counselors also came up to care for mentally ill in many urban areas. Another movement called the settlement Movement also came up and focused on the causes of poverty through the 3Rs of Research, Reforms and Residence. They provided the poor with educational, legal and health services. In the 20th C, volunteers including university students undertook social work especially in cities. The Community Association Movement began operating in the period between the 1st and 2nd world wars. It helped to bring about National Voluntary Organizations, churches, political parties, groups and the general public together. In the USA, social work began with relief which mainly involved giving of alms to the poor. This was followed by the Charity Organization Society which began work around 1973. It coordinated and worked with organizations which provided for the needs of the poor and desperate. The majority of these organizations worked with orphans and street families. Latter, there was a change from reliance on the efforts of volunteers to provide services to reliance on professionals paid by agencies. Community Welfare Councils were also started by charity organizations to raise funds, plan and coordinate welfare work. In the USA, the government later took the responsibility of social welfare and became the main planner, promoter and coordination of welfare programs.   The Evolution of Social work in Developing countries – Kenya During the early years of colonization, Britain entrusted the provision of most social services to missionaries. During this period, the colonial government was basically concerned with the provision and enforcement of law and order. Missions received grants for the support of social welfare. This approach tended to benefit individuals instead of wider communities. This necessitated the development of a new approach termed as mass education. This may be traced back to Phelps Stokes report 1922. The government was compelled by this report to initiate community improvement schemed through the Department of Social Welfare. From there on, social work developed in Kenya as indicated by the following milestones: Establishment of social welfare halls, mainly funded by local authorities, where literacy classes and recreation activities were carried out. The training institutions e.g. Jeans schools Maseno and Kabete were established from training social workers Pilot welfare schemes were started where social work was done on an intensive scale Up to this time, women were still the most commonly involved in social work activities. From 1954, the social welfare organization became part of the Ministry of Social Development. Social halls were established to provide literacy lessons, sports, film shows and meeting rooms for groups etc. They were managed by Community Development Assistants. Functional theory (Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim) This theories viewed society as a set of interrelated parts that work together to produce a stable social system. According to them, society is held together through consensus (agreement). That people agree on what is best for society and work together to ensure that the system runs smoothly to achieve the best for society. The society has elements that work for the maintenance of the society. These are viewed in terms of their functions called positive consequences. Functionalist recognized that not everything happening in the society is functional. Dysfunctional elements have negative consequences for stability e.g. wars, conflicts, prostitution etc. they destabilize the society rather than stabilize it. Functionalists also see the universe as a system of interconnected parts. They sometime use an organist analogue of organisms like human beings to explain this. To them the human body (social system) has various parts (organs). It follows then that for a system to survive, its various parts must have some degree of order or compatibility. Functionalist theory is also called consensus theory. This implies that a certain degree of order and stability are essential to a system. It implies also that there must be norms and values to guide members of any social system.   Conflict theory (Max Weber and Karl Max) The theory sees social life as being full of tension and conflict among members of the society. It focuses on forces in the society that promote competition and change and is interested in how those who have power exercises the power and control the people with less power. According to them, since resources are in limited supply, people will compete for them. Once a particular group gains control over the scarce resources, they tend to establish rules and regulations to protect their interests at the expense of other groups. This inequality between groups leads to social conflict as those with less power attempt to gain access to the desired resources while those with power resist. Conflict theorists do not limit their attention to acts of violent competition but are also interested in non-violent competition within various groups in the society e.g. men and women, people within different ages, races, ethnic groups, religions etc. Conflicts generally

The word social comes from society meaning “a group of people with a common goal and usually sharing a common way of life.” Social work is any collective and active participation in a given activity with the aim of achieving broad common objectives of the group. Others have defined it as “any planned purposeful intervention based on professional knowledge, working skills and values aimed at individual change.” Social work is concerned with any interaction between people, institutions or society that affects people’s ability to accomplish tasks. As a profession, social work has methods, skills and knowledge which employs when working with clients.   Mission of Social Work As a profession, social work is committed to the following:- The pursuit of social justice The enhancement of quality The development of the full potential of the individual, group or community   The purpose of Social Work Professional social workers are concerned with social problems Their impacts Causes Solutions Social workers work with individuals, families, groups, communities and organizations undertake the purpose of social work.   Areas of Social Work practice Hospitals i.e. guiding, counseling services, nurses, matrons etc. Schools i.e. nursery schools or health services in schools Communities – social workers help vulnerable groups e.g. widows, orphans, people living with AIDS, development groups etc. in communities Entrepreneurship – social workers help women groups, youths etc. in income generating activities NGOs – they act as coordinators and links between communities and donor agencies Government – social workers are employed as civil servants in different ministries   The role of Professional social workers Case management – they work with and link with agencies that meet their psycho –     social needs Medical social work  – this include counseling and psycho-therapy Human services management e.g. health services, probation. Social welfare policy analysis – they work with others to formulate and analyze policies before and after implementation. Community organizing – they organize communities to form groups Advocacy – they act on behalf of communities or individuals e.g. petitioning the government on their behalf. Teaching  social work in institutions Carrying out social science research – they carry out research on social problems Enhancement of capacities of individuals to address their social problems

MEANING OF SOCIAL WORK – Click to view THE EVOLUTION OF SOCIAL WORK – Click to view SOCIAL WORK SKILLS – Click to view SOCIAL WORK ETHICS AND VALUES – Click to view SOCIAL WORK PROCESS – Click to view METHODS OF SOCIAL WORK –Click to view MANAGEMENT OF SOCIAL SERVICES – Click to view EMERGING TRENDS IN SOCIAL WORK – Click to view

Problem identification Problem conceptualization Problem statement and justification Literature review and theoretical perspectives Objectives of a research Study designs Problem identification Researcher should research problems since there are a lot of problems that can be identified and studied. It should be a specific problem in which you have knowledge about It involves the existing theories, literature, discussions with experts, personal experience etc. Therefore one has to start by identifying a broad area that she/he is interested in. The area should be related to professional interest and goals of research e.g. education, low cost of living, problems of slums, poverty, HIV/AIDS scourge etc. The researcher should then narrow down the broad area to specific problems; in selecting a specific problem a researcher should consider the key actors that help in researching the problem. The research should be an important one thus leading to findings that have widespread implications in that particular area. Challenge some commonly state of believing in reality View the inadequacies of the living laws/policies Cover a reasonable scope i.e. neither too narrow nor too general Factors determining the Scope of research Time Money available Availability of subject/object Equipment available Problem conceptualization/understanding It involves knowing the problem one undertakes during research It should be a specific problem in which you have knowledge about; it involves the existing theory, existing literature, discussion with professionals, previous research study through the media, personal experiences, replication etc. Problem statement and justification A research study usually starts with a brief introduction; the researcher briefly introduces his/her area of interest then the general area of study, then he/she narrows down to a specific problem to be studied. This explains why you are investigating a particular issue; gives reason why you want to carry out research on that particular problem. Characteristics of a good problem statement Write it clearly to capture the reads Let it be objective as possible to make it researchable Indicate the scope of the research problem State the importance/relevance the new knowledge would bring. N/B: these characteristics are very important in justifying the problem stated; in stating the purpose, the researcher conveys the focus of the research study in one or two sentences. The purpose must be indicated clearly, must not be ambiguous, should indicate the concept of the study, the targeted population etc. e.g. 1. The purpose of this study is to investigate the income generating activities and how it affects women in small scale business in Kisumu. 2. The purpose of this study is to find out the relationship between income and poverty in the slums of Nairobi. Literature review It involves the systematic location, identification and analysis of documents containing information related to the research problem being investigated. It should be extensive because it is aimed at obtaining detailed knowledge. Its purpose is to learn about research already carried out in one or more aspects of research problems. Purpose of literature/objectives To summarize the results of the previous research so as to form a foundation on which to form you own research. To collect ideas on which to call you own research. To collect ideas on how to gather data. To investigate methods of data analysis To study instrumentation To accept the success of various design of the study already undertaken. Theoretical perspectives It involves all the theories which probable and applicable on the research; this helps in the analysis and verification on the mode of research. Objective of the research It entails the aims of research Here, the researcher clearly states the comprehensive aims and goals of his research. The purpose of the study may be “to find out the relationship between income and expenditure within the slums in Nairobi.” Formulating Hypothesis Hypothesis is a researcher’s prediction regarding the outcome of the study; it states possible differences, relationships or causes between two variable and concepts. In formulating hypothesis, the following can be used:- Existing theories Previous research Personal observation Experiences Common sense Purposes of Hypothesis They provide direction; they bridge the gap between the problem and the evidence needed for its solution. They ensure collection of the evidence necessary to answer the question posed in the statement of the problem. Enable the investigator to access the information he/she has collected from the stand point of both events and organizations. Sensitize the investigator to certain aspects of the situation that are relevant regarding the problem at hand. Researchers should however guard against being led to acceptance of false data or sensitization. It permits the researcher to understand the problem with greater clarity and use the data collected to find solutions to the problems. It guides the collection of data and provides the structure for their meaningful interpretation in relation to the problem under investigation. It forms the frame work for the ultimate conclusions as solutions; researchers usually base their conclusions on the results of the test of their hypotheses. Characteristics of a good Hypotheses They must state clearly and briefly the expected relationship between variables. They must be consistent with common sense or generally accepted truths. They must be based on a sound ration derived from theory or previous research or professional experience. They must be testable; data can be collected to support or fail to support hypothesis. This also implies that the variables stated in the hypothesis can be operationalized. They must be related to empirical phenomenon; words like “ought, should, bad” reflect moral judgement and should be avoided. They should be testable within a reasonable time; for example, the hypothesis that children who are breastfed for longer periods have a longer life expectancy in adulthood would take more than 50 years to test. Variables tested in hypotheses must be consistent as the purpose statement, objectives and the operationalized variables in the method sections. A good hypothesis must be simple and as concise as the complexity of the concepts involved allows. It must be stated in such away that its indications can be deduced in the form of empirical operations with respect to which relationship can be

Variable Its measurable characteristic assumes different values among the subject. It is therefore a logical way of exercising a particular attribute in a subject. Some variables are attribute theories that are expressed in kilograms e.g. age expresses in years, weight expresses in kilograms. Other variables are expressed in categories e.g. occupation may be expressed as a teacher or farmer; gender may be expressed as male or female. There are different types of classifications of variables e.g. dependent, independent, interviewing, confounding and antecedent variables. Reliability It is a measure of degree to which a research interment uses consistent results or data after repeated trials. In research it is influenced by random error. Validity Is the accurate and meaningfulness of influences which are based on the research results. It is the degree to which results obtain data actually represent phenomenon under study. Therefore, it has to do with how accurate the data obtained in the study represents raw variable in the study e.g. accurate influence could be made about people during experience if detailed information about the number of accidents each driver has caused over a period of time is obtained. Hypothesis Is a research anticipated explanation or opinion concerning the results of the study e.g. in the study of increase of HIV/AIDS, the researcher must hypotheses that the introduction of ARVs for the HIV infections.   RESEARCH METHODS, APPLICATIONS AND LIMITATION Case Study It is an independent investigation of an individual, group, institution or phenomenon. Most case studies are based on the premises that a case can be located that is typical of many other cases. The case under study is varied as an example of events or a group of individuals. A researcher should be very cautious when drawing conclusion because it is difficult to know how typical the selected ones really are. Purpose To determine factors which are highly related in the behaviour under study. The investigation therefore makes it difficult to examine if a single subject, groups, and phenomenon. Experiments It involves manipulation of independent variable to determine their effects on dependent variable. In a true experiment, the independent variables are treated e.g. a researcher may be interested in finding out the effects of using different types of fertilizer on maize yields or tonnage or determining whether gender and education level influence income levels. The independent variables are gender or education level whereas the dependent variable is income. N/B: independent variables in this e.g. cannot be manipulated by researcher.   Surveys This is an attempt to collect data from members of a population in order to determine the correct status of the population in respect to one or more variables. It is a self report study which requires the collection of qualifiable information from one sample. Survey research can either be description, exploration or involving advanced statistical analysis. Information collected through survey may be used for various purposes e.g. market researchers use survey to evaluate, produce acceptance for use. Researchers in economics, anthropology, psychology and public health use surveys frequently to collect information relevant to problems in their fields. Studies involving surveys account for a subsequent proportion of the research done in the field of education e.g. field surveys. Purpose of survey research Seeks to obtain information that describes existing phenomenon by asking individuals about their participation, attitude, behaviour or value. Therefore, it is a type of descriptive research. Can be used in explaining or exploring the existing storage of two or more variable at a given point of time. Collecting original data for the purpose of describing population which is too large to observe especially by scientist and other educators. For measurements of characteristics of a large population. Evaluation research This is a systematic process of collecting and analyzing data in order to make decisions. It is a process of determining whether the intended results were realized; it has grown enormously over recent years. Purpose of evaluation research It is usually initiated by need for development to be made concerning policy or political strategy. It is to collect data that is to facilitate decision making; data collected are usually related to a particular concern. Evaluation research should satisfy 4 important criteria as oriented by Borg and Girll. Utility; the evaluation has utility if its informative is timely and useful to the affected person. Feasibility; an evaluation design is feasible if it’s appropriate to the setting in which study is conducted. Also if its cost is effective i.e. the study is worth the cost. Priority; an evaluation has priority, if the light of the person affected by the evaluation are protected. Accuracy; this refers to the extent to which an evaluation study produce validity, variable and comprehensive information about the phenomenon being evaluated. Evaluation models/Designs Model I Evaluation to assess the worth/usefulness of a program, project; it includes evaluation of persons e.g. teachers, managers. Model II Evaluation of performance relative to objectives The main assumption is that the success of a project/programme depends on how well the objectives of the programme are achieved by the users or the learners. Model III Evaluation to assist in decision making It assumes that the programmes need evaluation as they are being developed and carried out in order to meet decision. The researcher may force on the analysis of needs and problems (the context analysis) evaluation of resources and strategies needed to accomplish the programmes, goals and objectives (input evaluation); analysis of the programme once the programme has been put into operation (process evaluation) and analysis of the content to which the goals of a particular programme has been achieved (product evaluation). Model IV Evaluation to identify issues and concerns among the advanced people being evaluated Types of evaluation research Needs assessment evaluation It refers to the discrepancy between an existing set of conditions and desired set conditions Research can be done to assess the need in a systematic way This type of research is important because the results of needs assessment study provides a foundation for developing new programmes and