March 17, 2023

Sexually transmitted infection (STDs) vulnerable group of disease or infection whose predominant mode of transmission is through sexual intercourse Stds makes one more vulnerable to HIV infection e.g. gonorrhea and genital herpes thus early treatment   to   aspect of HIV infection. When one is infected by STDs he/ she depict the following symptoms Urethral discharge Virginal discharge Genital ulcers Long abdominal pain Eye  infection  in new born Swelling of scrotum Examples of STDs Gonorrhea Causative agent   Neisseria gonococcus Signs Burning when passing urine Discharge of pus  through the urethra  of the virginal  or sore growth  incase of oral sex, Complication and treatment Damage of fallopian duct in female  and epididymis  in male  leading  to sterility Inflammation of joint, liver, heart and peritoneum may occur. Treatment By use of effective antibiotic as the organism is resistant to several times. Noflocin is a useful anti biotic. SYPHILIS Bacterium Treponema palladium Signs and symptoms Sore in the genitalia and body rush After some years it damages the heart aorta and the brain leading to a condition known as paralysis of the insane. Complication and treatment Can cause re-current miscarriage, heart problems and brain damage Easily failed with infection of penicillin or cephalosporin’s   LYMPOGRANULOMA Causative agent – Chlamydia Signs and symptoms Swelling and ulceration of lymph nods in the grain Complication Narrowing of rectum and destruction of urethra Treatment Tetracycline’s   TRICHOMONIASIS Causative agent- protozoa dichotomous virginals Signs and symptoms Burning in the virginal  and urethra Greenish – yellow discharge Complication and treatment Treated with fasigyn (tinidazolepessarics) or cream   Candidiasis Causative agent – a fungus called Candida albicans Signs and symptoms Burning in the virginal  and the urethra White thick discharge sometimes tiredness with blood. Complication and treatment May lead to pre cancer condition of the neck and womb (cervix cancer) Treated with anti fungal passure or cream e.g. doctrimazole.   GENITAL Herpes. Causative agent Herpes simplex agent Signs and symptoms Painful vascular rushes in the genitals Complication and treatment Figia damage unborn baby eventually treating to death. Cancer of the neck of the womb no nearly the effective treatment. Acyclorin may be harmful.   HEPATITIS Causative agent Hepatitis ‘B’ virus Signs and symptoms Yellow less of eyes (juridical ) due to  liver damage Pain around right upper abdomen Lead to cancer of the liver. Complication and treatment Cancer of the liver. No treatment, vaccine, available also transmitted by blood transfusion.   AIDS Causative agent HIV Signs Many different signs but dominated by weight less and opportunistic infections. Complication and treatment Much complication eventually leading to death i.e. no cure CLAMIDIASIS Causative agent Chlamydia trichomatis (virus) Very common in adolescence Pain when passing  urine Discharge and abdominal pain Complication and treatment Damage to fallopian duct Inflation and sterility in both male  and female Treatment doxycycline Cause by human popilloma virus Signs and symptoms Marks around genital area Invasion of the neck of the womb. Complication and treatment Cancer of neck of the womb Treatment is very difficult burning the wart with podophilingetc Relationship between STDS and HIV AIDS Both are sexually transmitted Both don’t have cure Both require psychotherapy (counseling) for individual to cope with them. In all of them individual s experience stigmatization In both of them the victim should always be educated on ways  of avoiding  re infection for it  will worsen  the situation Clinical staging of HIV / aids Clinically HIV/ AIDS infection has been categorized into five stages Transmission  stage Primary infection Asymptomatic phase. Intermediate / asymptomatic stage Advance disease Transmission stage Transmission of HIV/ AIDS with the 1st stage without, with non of the subsequent stage can occur Basically HIV virus is transmitted through contact with body fluids e.g sexual intercourse. accounting 80% of HIV transmission  intravenous  drug use  10% unscreened  blood transfusion  accounting  5% of HIV transmission  and exposure  to contaminated  instrument accounting  1% e.g. needle  . Mother to child transmission accounting 10% of HIV transmission. Primary injection. The symptoms of injection occur normally 2-6 weeks after exposure to the virus. In 50-80% of patient the symptom are normally mild and patient might dismiss them as mild through symptoms. this might be accompanied  by swelling of the glands , sore throats  which  may persist  up to 14 days .CD4 will decline as immune  system come  into attack   from the virus  but will recover   as the immune  system  land to fight injection  through production  of antibodies. Antibodies may become detectable  10-14 days  after the onset of  symptoms  however  depending  on the sensitivity  of the test  and level  of A HIV test may still  be negative   once natural  viral  suppression  due to immune  function  occur  the level  of virus  reaches a plateau 3-6 months after the injection has taken place. Its during zero conversion  that the patient  is tightly  infectious and transmission of virus  is very likely  while  viral  level  remains  high in the body fluids. The plateau in the viral level is called viral sets. Point and may indicate this rate of viral replication e.g. disease progression is likely to be faster in those in those with high viral subsequent. ASSYMPTOMATIC PHASE During the phase  the patient remain asymptomatic  (no signs  of HIV  / aids) although  enlarged  gland  may characterize the phase  with minor complication  which the patients  ignore  as not no medical  attention . Oral lesion may be represented as ulcers and the patients may have increased sinuses and other respiratory tract. Many patients may take this normal   cause infection if they are unaware of their status and treat with over the counter medicine. SYMPTOMATIC STAGE Here cd4 count has fallen below 500 and remain above 200. Patients begin manifesting symptom of HIV / aids and may develop a risk of bacteria pneumonias or, pulmonary TB. Also during  this stage  mouth  infection  may also  show  itself  as oral  thrush an d oral leukoplakia. ADVANCED DISEASE During this stage the cd4 counts fails below 200 patients may develop a variety of opportunistic infection of which include Non – pulmonary TB Pneumocytic pneumonia  and may be accompanied

Introductions The body has a two –part Immune system which workers together to protect it from harmful micro organism such as bacteria, fungi, viruses and parasites, it is divided in to two: Innate Immunity This is the front-line defense which equips us from before birth to deal with the various microorganisms that we are likely to meet in our normal everyday lives Innate Immunity Include: Antibodies formed by a mother and passed on to the developing fetus and through infant breasting feeding Tears containing the enzyme lysosome, to protect one eye from bacteria Saliva in the mouth, also containing the anti-bacterial lysosome Mucus and chemicals co-existing but with quite differing functions in the urethra Ureter (water tubes) and vagina When the barriers of the innate immunity are penetrated ,while blood cells leukocyte.(phagocytes or devouring cells) and other while cells (principally serotoxin or natural cell-Killing cells)surround and a number of other naturally-produced substances such as interfere and a range of blood proteins (called the complement system combine to help in the destruction process. Adaptive Immunity Adaptive Immunity is the second line of defense and is called into service when the defenses of the innate immunity are breached well beyond the capability of its response, Its defense, instead of being a  general reaction is much more  specific as it adapts to the particular organism present hence adaptive immunity is often referred to as specific immune system to identify the invading micro-organism as being foreign to any of the body’s own protein  these foreign  or devouring cells) and other  while cells (principally  serotoxin or natural cell-killing cells) surround and attempt to destroy  the  invader. At the same time a number of other naturally-produced substances such as interferon and a range of blood proteins called the complement system) combine to help in the destruction process. Adaptive Immunity Adaptive Immunity is the second line of defense and is called into service when the defenses of the innate immunity are breached well beyond the capability of it response. It defence, instead of being a general reaction is much more specific  as it adapts to the particular organism present hence adaptive immunity is often referred to as specific immunity. Body immunity is the ability  of the body o define  itself against foreign  bodies ( antigens) its commonly  associated  with the blood  cells  which  comprise  the soldier  cells  of the body. Body immunity system it’s important because it equips   as our bodies with the ability to control act foreign invaders. We have two types of immunity Innate Adaptive Innate immunity- natural ability of the body to defend itself against micro –organism and it’s always transmitted from parent to children. Example of innate immunity Lysosome –protect eyes and mouth from being infected by bacteria. hairs-in nose help trap inhaled mucus has cilia  hairs found in trachea   and wind  pipe  when by they protect  the lungs  by ensuring  that foreign  matters  don’t affect. Skin – its layer protect the body surface, serviced by (sweat glands) sebaceous gland providing bacterial killing chemical s. acids – in stomach and intestine (HCl) which destroy harmful  microorganism  and also  permit   the present  of helpful bacteria. ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY This is artificially  induced  attenuation  ( inoculation) this is type  of immunity  called intro service when  the inmate  immunity is destroyed  beyond  response . There are around 7 days between immune response as one part of the system takes over from the either. The response can either be cellular or hormonal based on the type of invader. Hormonal immunity response to bacteria while cellular responds to virus and parasite. Effects of HIV/ aids on the body immunity Weaken the body immunity leading to opportunistic infection. Inhibit the production of CD4 cells. Destroy immune system. T- Killer cells termed as cytolysis t- lymphocytes. Upon entry in the body HIV moves n migrates to the lymph nodes in different parts of the body e.g. neck, groins and armpits. The lymphatic system which include the lymph nodes act as a reservoir for the virus it then moves other parts of the body where it infect and destroy white blood cells (t- lymphocyte or CD4 cells) The lymph nodes  normally trap bacteria  , fungi and virus to allow  easier  destruction by the WBC they are contracted   by    there   but as the virus  concentration  increases  there s both  breakdown  in the ability of the lymphocyte  to hold  back. Infection and the destruction of the CD4 cells The breakdown  of the lymph  nodes  barrier allow rapid  spread  of the virus  into  the blood  stream and other parts  of the body. According to the  diamond  HIV / aids research centre  (US)  says  that infected die on average  every  two days   and that unto 100 billion new  viruses  are released  daily. When the virus   enter CD4 cell, it takes unto 30 hrs to cope with genetic material produce new enzyme and other viral component then they are assembled into new viruses. Steps in viral replication The HIV virus first defined in the US in 1983 is classified in the family of tentrovidae within genus retrovirus. Retrovirus has RNA genome which also poses   a unique transcriptase (reverse transcriptase) Steps Attachment (fusion) HIV virus itself to human cell so as to inject its genetic materials   into the cell on the surface of the cell through molecules called receptors Using receptors the HIV cells attaches itself and fuses into the cell membrane. a process  called fusion to do this  HIV  uses GP120  to attach  itself to human  cell and GP 41 to fuse into  the human  cell. Step 11 Transcription process After fusion with the cell, the virus transfers its instruction which reprogram the cell to produce copies of the cell. This instruction is known as RNA are similar to DNA contained by all cells of the body. An enzyme reversed transcriptase convert the single stranded HIV RNA to double stranded HIV DNA. A class of drugs known as transcriptase inhibitors Step111 Once HIV has converted itself to HIV DNA moves towards the host   cell nucleus which

Community nutrition Definition Community nutrition is the process of helping individuals and groups develop healthy eating habits in order to promote wellness and prevent disease. Purpose Americans increasingly eat a diet that is high in saturated fat and refined sugars and lacking in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. Poor dietary habits are linked to health conditions such as obesity , diabetes, heart disease , strokes, and some forms of cancer . With more than half of Americans classified as overweight or obese, organizations including the American Dietetic Association strive to increase awareness about the importance of a healthy diet and exercise . The goal of community nutrition is to educate individuals and groups so that they adopt healthy eating habits. Dieticians and nutritionists work with many other health care professionals in promoting improved community nutrition. Their efforts emphasize a preventive approach in educating individuals in how a change in dietary habits will reduce the risk of illness. Community nutrition focuses on all age groups. The groups targeted range from babies to pregnant women to older adults. For example, a young pregnant woman may not realize how poor eating habits affect her developing fetus or she may be unaware of the importance of breastfeeding. Older adults may lose interest in eating due to loneliness, inability to prepare meals, or a physical condition such as difficulty chewing. Individuals with diabetes may not understand the need to control their blood glucose levels through diet as well as medication. Obesity is an issue for many age groups. Causes include lack of physical education programs in schools and an overly busy lifestyle for adults. The availability of fast food and “supersized” items are regarded positively because of their cost and convenience. Their accessibility and convenience often prompts people to make unhealthy food choices. In a school cafeteria, for example, a child may bypass a salad in favor of fries and a soda. A moviegoer may choose to buy a tub of buttered popcorn because the purchase price includes a free refill. Community nutrition programs attempt to change attitudes so that a diet rich in fruit, vegetables, and whole grains is more appealing than diet high in fats and sugars. While sweet, high fat foods may be an occasional treat, community nutrition emphasizes a lifetime of routine healthy eating. Precautions Since the objective of community nutrition is for people to adopt healthy eating habits, there are usually no reasons that a person would be prevented from participating in a community nutrition program. Some individuals such as those with diabetes who participate in community nutrition programs may have special dietary needs. Description Community nutrition programs are administered by organizations such as public health agencies, public schools, residential facilities for the elderly, hospitals, social service organizations, and health-care systems. Programs range from lunch programs for school children and senior citizens to health fairs and “5-A-Day” public awareness promotions that urge the public to eat least five fruits and vegetables every day. Health care professionals may develop a community nutrition project aimed at groups such as new immigrants or the elderly. They may implement an existing project such as a food distribution program. Nutritionists and dietitians may work as part of a team with representatives from other groups such as businesses, schools, or churches. Sometimes nutrition programs are linked with exercise programs. Participants may need to meet eligibility requirements for some programs. These projects may be limited to people of a certain age or income level. Some community nutrition programs, such as lunch programs, are ongoing. Others such as a diabetic cooking class have an established duration. Costs for programs vary. There is often no cost for public agency programs; however, classes offered by a health maintenance organization may not be covered by insurance. Community nutrition projects may also be operated by groups such as social service agencies and churches. Community nutrition addresses health conditions such as obesity and economic conditions such as poverty, which limit access to healthy food, lack of nutritional information, and cultural traditions that promote unhealthy eating. Community nutrition programs strive to improve eating habits through food banks that distribute food as needed. Some cities have monthly food distribution programs. Distributors provide discounted packages that contain healthy foods such as meat, eggs, vegetables, fruit, bread and rice. Shasta County community nutrition The California County Public Health Department’s community nutrition projects provide an example of the scope of available nutrition services. In 2005, Shasta County projects included obesity prevention for children, a food security coalition, breastfeeding education, and promotion of 5-A-Day Week and National Nutrition Month. Obesity prevention efforts include working with schools to develop healthier choices to be offered in their cafeterias and to aid them offering healthier alternatives in their fundraising efforts. Food security pertains to a person’s access to healthy food. The public health department also works with other agencies to reduce hunger in the county. Another county goal is to help mothers overcome barriers to breastfeeding. The promotional campaigns bring together registered dietitians, health professionals, and community organizations. They work with the county to plan activities such as Get Healthy Shasta. The event, held in a park, features entertainment and activities to promote healthy eating, physical activity, and wellness. Shasta County’s projects are tied to Healthy Eating 2010, a county strategic plan with goals that include increasing the number of residents who eat five servings of fruit and vegetables. The objective is to raise that number from 26% in 2002 to 40% by December of 2010. Preparation Preparation for participating in a community nutrition program varies from program to program. An individual with a medical condition may need to consult a physician before entering a program. Registration is required for some community nutrition projects, and an assessment interview is often required to determine eligibility to participate in some programs. Aftercare Some programs require follow-up classes or meetings. A nutritionist may do an assessment interview to determine whether or not a program is effective. Surveying is one method of determining whether participants

Community health is a major field of study within the medical and clinical sciences which focuses on the maintenance, protection and improvement of the health status of population groups and communities as opposed to the health of individual patients. It is a distinct field of study that may be taught within a separate school of public health or environmental health. It is a discipline which concerns itself with the study and improvement of the health characteristics of biological communities. While the term community can be broadly defined, community health tends to focus on geographical areas rather than people with shared characteristics. The health characteristics of a community are often examined using geographic information system (GIS) software and public health datasets. Some projects, such as InfoShare or GEOPROJ combine GIS with existing datasets, allowing the general public to examine the characteristics of any given community in participating countries. Because ‘health III’ (broadly defined as well-being) is influenced by a wide array of socio-demographic characteristics, relevant variables range from the proportion of residents of a given age group to the overall life expectancy of the neighborhood/community. Medical interventions aimed at improving the health of a community range from improving access to medical care to public health communications campaigns. Recent research efforts have focused on how the built environment and socio-economic status affect health. Community health may be studied within three broad categories: Primary healthcare which refers to interventions that focus on the individual or family such as hand-washing, immunization, circumcision, personal dietary choices, and lifestyle improvement. Secondary healthcare refers to those activities which focus on the environment such as draining puddles of water near the house, clearing bushes, and spraying insecticides to control vectors like mosquitoes. Tertiary healthcare on the other hand refers to those interventions that take place in a hospital setting, such as intravenous rehydration or surgery. The success of community health programmes relies upon the transfer of information from health professionals to the general public using one-to-one or one to many communication (mass communication). The latest shift is towards health marketing. Role of Community Health Workers How Will CHWs Affect Change? The Initiative provides CHWs with creative strategies, materials, and tools for training, educating, and changing lifestyle behaviors so CHWs can be active promoters of health in their community. Community health workers (CHWs) are lay members of the community who work either for pay or as volunteers in association with the local health care system in both urban and rural environments. CHWs usually share ethnicity, language, socioeconomic status, and life experiences with the community members they serve. They have been identified by many titles, such as community health advisors, lay health advocates, promotoras, outreach educators, community health representatives, peer health promoters, and peer health educators. CHWs offer interpretation and translation services, provide culturally appropriate health education and information, help people get the care they need, give informal counseling and guidance on health behaviors, advocate for individual and community health needs, and provide some direct services such as first aid and blood pressure screening.1 Since CHWs typically reside in the community they serve, they have the unique ability to bring information where it is needed most. They can reach community residents where they live, eat, play, work, and worship. CHWs are frontline agents of change, helping to reduce health disparities in underserved communities. HRSA CHW National Workforce Study Findings1 CHW-specific work activities involved: Culturally appropriate health promotion and health education 82% Assistance in accessing medical services & programs 84% Assistance in accessing non-medical services & programs 72% “Translation” 36% Interpreting 34% Counseling 31% Mentoring 21% Social support 46% Transportation 36% Related to work activities, employer-reported duties: Case management 45% Risk identification 41% Patient navigation 18% Direct services 37% Among the many known outcomes of CHWs’ service are the following: Improved access to health care services. Increased health and screening. Better understanding between community members and the health and social service system. Enhanced communication between community members and health providers. Increased use of health care services. Improved adherence to health recommendations. Reduced need for emergency and specialty services.1 CHWs Take Action to Promote Heart Health in the Community The Initiative’s health education materials are designed to be taught by CHWs, who are trained to use these materials to help community residents improve their quality of life by adopting heart healthy behaviors. With the help of the Initiative, CHWs are able to: Help families understand their risk for developing heart disease. Help community members get appropriate screenings and referrals for health and social services. Track an individual’s progress toward meeting health goals. Hold workshops and group discussions to learn about ways the community can promote heart health. Teach people how to prepare heart healthy meals, get more physical activity, and stop smoking.   COMMUNITY HEALTH The term “community health” refers to the health status of a defined group of people, or community, and the actions and conditions that protect and improve the health of the community. Those individuals who make up a community live in a somewhat localized area under the same general regulations, norms, values, and organizations. For example, the health status of the people living in a particular town, and the actions taken to protect and improve the health of these residents, would constitute community health. In the past, most individuals could be identified with a community in either a geographical or an organizational sense. Today, however, with expanding global economies, rapid transportation, and instant communication, communities alone no longer have the resources to control or look after all the needs of their residents or constituents. Thus the term “population health” has emerged. Population health differs from community health only in the scope of people it might address. People who are not organized or have no identity as a group or locality may constitute a population, but not necessarily a community. Women over fifty, adolescents, adults twenty-five to forty-four years of age, seniors living in public housing, prisoners, and blue-collar workers are all examples of populations. As noted in

COMMUNITY HEALTH – Click to view COMMUNITY NUTRITION – Click to view IMMUNITY – Click to view RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HIV/AIDS AND OTHER STDS – Click to view IMPACT OF HIV/AIDS IN THE VARIOUS SECTORS – Click to view HIV/AIDS COUNSELLING – Click to view COMMUNICABLE DISEASES – Click to view FIRST AID – Click to view

A committee is an individual or a group, appointed by an agency, authority or larger assembly, to whom a matter is referred or is committed for attention, investigation, analysis or resolution. Purposes of committees Types of committees Standing committees. Are permanent panels identified as such in chamber rules. Select or special committees. Are generally established by a separate resolution of the chamber. Joint committees. Terms commonly used in committee procedures It is a list or outline of things to be considered or done. Also known as protocols, are the instant written record of a meeting or hearing Is the minimum number of members of an assembly or society that must be present at any of its meetings to make the proceedings of that meeting valid. Annual general meeting. Is a mandatory yearly gathering of a company’s interested stakeholders Special general meeting. It is a gathering called to deal with an emergency thing Ad-hoc committee. It is a committee formed for a specific task or objective and dissolved after the completion of the task or achievement of the objective. Interim chairman. Is a person appointed by a company’s board of directors to assume the role of the chairperson during a time of transition or as the result of the sudden departure of the company’s former chairperson Select committee. It is a small legislative committee appointed for a special purpose. Writing minutes Minutes should be written correctly and all the agendas should be discussed and written properly.

Definition It is a location, usually building or portion of a building, where a company conducts its business. Role of office administration and management Official correspondence communication 1. Mails It is related to handling or delivery of letters and packages. Mail can be in form of electronic mails or use of postal address. It is always professional that after receiving a mail to respond to it as soon as possible. Most people nowadays use this mode of communication especially electronic mailing because it is fast. 2. Telephone messages Offices can also use telephone messages also known as short text messages. Offices can also call or send a message. Basic office stationery Minor computer accessories Colour/mono printer Labels Envelopes Folders Sheet protectors Suspension files Binders, clipboards and files Pens and pencils Notebooks, writing pads, post it notes and flags Desk accessories Adhesive tapes and dispensers Markers and highlighters Staplers and staples Dividers Calculators Punches Sundries e.g. clips, scissors Diaries Packaging material (brown paper, tape and bubble wrap) Major common filing subjects Filing means keeping documents in a safe place and being able to find them easily and quickly. A filing system is the central record-keeping system for an organization. It helps you to be organized, systematic, efficient and transparent. It also helps all people who should be able to access information to do so easily. Offices do file documents that are sent to us by other people or organizations. We also file records of all our organizational activities. These can be letters, memos, reports, financial records, policy documents e.t.c. Equipments used for filing Filing cabinet Steel cabinet Date stamp Register Filing shelves Box files General office equipments Dictation machines Printers Scanners Copiers Laminating machines Label makers Shredders

It is a broad term describing the various acts of identifying, acquiring and managing the products and/or resources needed to run a business or other organization. These include physical goods as well as information, services and any other resources needed. Store ordering procedures Listing requirements Balancing Catalogues Cost estimates Requisitioning Requirements in storage of supplies Types of storage It is important to know about products and how it is supposed to be stored. Recording All products should be recorded according to the number, size, price and how many have been supplied. Receipts should be available for accountability Stock ledger It is the capital stock records of corporation. It is also referred to as stock books. These records are permanent and contain the personal information of each stockholder along with details of each share they own. Stock ledger should be updated each time a transaction dealing with a share occurs.   Store issuing procedures Ledger records A ledger is the principal book or computer file for recording and totaling economic transactions measured in terms of a monetary unit of account by account type, with debits and credit in separate columns and a beginning monetary balance and ending monetary balance for each account. Issue voucher This form enables you to transfer the items between the departments and generate voucher. As soon as you issue the voucher, the stock level of the item is updated in both the departments. Inventory It is a complete listing of merchandise or stock on hand, work in progress, raw materials , finished goods on hand e.t.c made each year by a business concern.   Control measures for stores and maintenance Inspection check-list A checklist is a type of informational job aid used to reduce failure by compensating for potential limits of human memory and attention. It helps to ensure consistency and completeness in carrying out a task. Discrepancies A discrepancy is a lack of agreement or balance. If there is a discrepancy between the money you earned and the number on your paycheck. Maintenance of equipment Equipments should be regularly maintained for easy performing of a job/task.

Expenditure It refers to the total amount of money that a government or a person spends. It refers to payment of cash or cash-equivalent for goods or services or a charge against available funds in settlement of an obligation as evidenced by an invoice, receipt, voucher or other such document. Revenue Is the amount of money that a company actually receives during a specific period including discounts and deductions for returned merchandise. Provision for depreciation and adjustment Depreciation is usually recorded at the end of the accounting period. Adjusting entries assure both the balance sheet and the income statement are up-to- date accrual basis of accounting.   Importance of estimates and budgets as tools in financial management Control of funds Government accounting system Is the process of recording, analyzing, classifying, summarizing, communicating and interpreting financial information about government in aggregate and detail reflecting transactions and other economic events involving the receipt, spending, transfer, usability and disposition of assets and liabilities. Business accounting system Is the process of recording, analyzing, classifying, summarizing, communicating and interpreting financial information about a business in aggregate and detail reflecting transactions and other economic events involving the receipt, spending, transfer, usability and disposition of assets and liabilities. NGO’s accounting system It is the process of recording, analyzing, classifying, summarizing, communicating and interpreting financial information about an NGO in aggregate and detail reflecting transactions and other economic events involving the receipt, spending, transfer, usability and disposition of assets and liabilities. Books of accounts It refers to records or books in which all financial information (transactions) of a business or an entity is recorded and maintained Savings account Are accounts maintained by retail financial institutions that pay interest but cannot be used directly as money in the narrow sense of a medium exchange Current account It is a type of deposit account that caters to professionals and businessmen alike. Fixed account It is a financial instrument provided by banks which provides investors with a higher rate of interest than a regular savings account until the given maturity date Cash account It is an account in which all transactions are in money. Petty account It is the money kept available within business to make change for customers or pay for customer or pay for small purchases that need to be paid with cash. Double entry book-keeping It is a system of bookkeeping so named because every entry to an account requires a corresponding and opposite entry to different account. For instance recording earning of Ksh 10,000 would require making two entries: a debit entry of Ksh 10,000 to an account called “cash” and a credit entry to an account called “Revenue”. The rule to remember is “debit the receiver and credit the giver”. For every transaction the value of debit must = the value of credits. The extended accounting equation must balance: ‘ A + E = L + OE + R’ A- Asset E- Expenses L- Liabilities OE- owner’s equity R- Revenue Expenses are always on the debits Revenues are always on credits

Human factors in management It refers to the study of how human behave physically and psychologically in relation to particular environments, products or services 1. Motivation Motivation is very important for an organization because of the following benefits; Improves level of efficiency of employees. This will result into increase in productivity, improve overall efficiency and reduce cost of operations Leads to achievement of organizational goals. The goals can be achieved by best utilization of resources Builds friendly relationship. Motivation brings employees satisfaction. This can be done by keeping into mind and framing an incentive plan for the benefit of the employees It leads to stability of work force. The employees can remain loyal to the enterprise only when they have a feeling of participation in the management 2. Moral It promotes good feelings about the policies, practices of the organization. Morale is one of the important factors in success or failure of the industry. It helps in overcoming problems such as absenteeism, indiscipline e.t.c. 3. Attitude One of the mos t4h6tegp;t important steps one can take toward achieving his/her greatest potential in business is to learn to monitor his/her attitude and its impact on work performance and relationships. Positive attitude in the workplace helps employees to accomplish tasks faster and in a better manner The benefits of positive attitude include Career success. Employee’s success in the workplace is measured through their performance. With a positive attitude, employees tend to take more interest in what they do and deliver Effective leadership. Some employees earn respect easily and people often follow and listen to them. This is possible through the positive attitude demonstrated by leaders. Team work. Positive attitude helps employees to appreciate each other’s competencies and work as a team for achieving common objectives. Proper decision making. Having a positive attitude helps employees to take better decisions, in an objective manner Recruitment policies Recruitment   is the process   of searching for prospective employees and stimulating and encouraging them to apply for jobs in an organization. Characteristics/features of recruitment Recruitment is a process or a series of activities rather than a single act or event. Recruitment is a linking  activity  as  it brings  together  those with  jobs  (employer) and  those  seeking jobs (employees) Recruitment is positive functions as it seek to develop a pool of   eligible persons from which most suitable   ones can be selected. Recruitment is an important faction  as it makes it possible  to acquire the number  and type  of persons  necessary  for the  continued  functioning  of the organization. Recruitment is a pervasive function as all organization engages in recruiting activity. Recruitment is a two way process. Methods of Recruitment Direct Method – Under direct recruitment scouting employee contacts, manned exhibits and waiting list are used. In scouting representatives of the organization are sent to educational and training institutions. These traveling, recruiters exchange information with the student clearly their doubts, stimulate them to apply for jobs conduct interview and shortlist candidates for further screening. Indirect method – Advertisement in newspapers, journals, on the radio and television are used to publicize vacancies. A well thought out and clear advertisement enables candidates to assess their suitability so that only those possessing the requisite qualification will apply. Third party method – Various agencies can be used to recruit personnel Personnel records It refers to records pertaining to employees of an organization. These records are accumulated, factual and comprehensive information related to concern records and detained. Personnel records are maintained for formulating and reviewing personnel policies and procedures. Complete details about all employees are maintained in personnel records such as name, date of birth, marital status, academic qualifications, previous employment details e.t.c. Types of personnel records Records of employment contain applicants past records, list sources, employees progress, medical reports e.t.c. Wages and salaries records e.g payroll records, leave records, turnover records e.t.c. Training and development e.g. appraisal reports, transfer cases, training schedule and training methods. Health and safety records e.g. sickness reports, medical history e.t.c Service records are essential records containing bio-data, residential and family information, academic qualifications, marital status, past address and employment records Personnel training It can be organized or acquired by the employer for the employees, based on the operations and goals of the working community. A company can ensure that the competence and expertise of its employees remains up to date through training. Types of personnel training In service training Pre-service training On the job training Need for personnel training Training  is required on account  of the following reasons: Job requirement- Employees selected for a job might  lack  the qualification required to perform  the  job   effectively. New and inexperienced employees require detailed instructions for effective  performance on  the job. Technological changes – Technology is changing  very  fast. New automation and mechanization have  are been increasingly applied  in offices and service sector. Organisational viability – In order to survive and grow, an organization must continually  adopt itself to the changing  environment. With increasing economic linearization and globalization, business firms  are  experiencing  expansion growth  & diversification. Internal mobility – Training becomes necessary when an employee moves from one job to another due to promotion and transfer. Reasons for training The installation of new equipment or techniques which require new or improved skills. A change in working method. A change in product , which may necessitate  training A realization that performance is inadequate. Labour shortage, necessitating the upgrading. A desire to reduce the amount of accidents. Promotion or transfer of individual employees Health, safety and security in employment 1. National social security fund The role of NSSF is to provide security protection to all workers in the formal and informal sectors in retirement. 2. National Hospital insurance Fund It is the primary provider of health insurance in Kenya with a mandate to enable all Kenyans to access quality and affordable health services 3. Widows and children’s pension scheme WOPS is a contributory scheme operated by the government which provides pension benefits to the widow and orphans of the deceased officer who was a

Managerial process The process of management consists of several interrelated activities. These activities are known as managerial functions. There are different classifications of functions which a manager has to perform in order to work effectively. These functions includes planning, organizing, staffing, directing, controlling, coordinating, communicating, motivating e.t.c. These functions therefore are applied in every situation of the organization. 1. Planning Planning is the basic or primary function of management. It precedes other functions because a manager plans before he acts. Planning involves determining the objectives and selecting a course of action to achieve them. It implies looking ahead and deciding in advance what is to be done, when and where is to be done, how and by whom it is to be done. Planning is a mental process requiring the use of intellectual faculties, foresight, imagination and sound judgement. Therefore a plan is a pre-determined future course of action (today, tomorrow and future). Planning may be long term or short term and managers at all levels have to prepare them. The process of planning consists of; Determining of objectives Forecasting and choice of a course of action Formulation of policies, programmes, budgets, schedules etc to achieve the objectives Laying down of procedure and standards of performance. 2. Organizing Is the process of establishing harmonious authority among the members of the enterprise. It is the function of creating a structure of duties and responsibilities. Through organizing a manager can bring together materials and human resources required for the achievement of desired goals. This helps to avoid duplication of work and overlapping of efforts. Organizing involves the following steps; Determining and defining the activities required for the achievement of planned goals Grouping the activities into logical and convenient units Assigning the duties and activities to specific positions and people Delegating authority to those positions and people Defining and fixing responsibilities for performance 3. Staffing Staffing is the process of filling all positions in an organization with adequate and qualified personnel. Staffing consist of man power planning, recruitment, selection, training, compensation, integration and maintenance of employees. These will facilitate smooth running and competency of employees through appraisal of their performance. 4. Directing It is the function of guiding, supervising, motivating and leading people towards the attainment of planned targets of performance. Managers need to take active steps to ensure that the employees accomplish their tasks according to the established plans. Directing initiates organized actions and sets the whole organization machinery into action. Directing involves the following activities; Issuing orders and instructions Supervising people at work Creating willingness for certain objectives Establishing understanding with employees regarding plans and their implementation (communication) Leading or influencing the behavior of employees 5. Controlling It is the process of ensuring that the organization is moving in the desired direction and that progress is being made towards the achievement of the goals. Controlling involves the following steps Establishing standards for measuring work performance Measurement of actual performance and comparing it with the standard Finding variances between performance and standards Taking corrective action for deviations so as to ensure attainment of objectives Difference between administration and management Management is an art of getting things done through others by directing their effort towards goals while administration is the formulation of broad objectives, plans and policies Management is execution of functions and doing of functions while administration involves decision making and thinking function Management decisions within the framework are set by the administration while in administration is major decisions of an enterprise as a whole Management consist of middle level activity while administration consists of top level activity Management consists of managerial personnel who use their specialized knowledge to fulfill the objectives while administration consists of owners who invest capital and receive profit from an enterprise Management decisions are influenced by the values, opinions and belief of the managers while administration is influenced by the public opinion, government policies or customs Management is mainly motivation and controlling while administration is mainly planning and organizing Management handles the employees while administration it handles the business aspect such as finance.   Relationship between administration and management (assignment) Techniques in management Leadership- Effective leadership should be placed before for the purpose of overseeing the activities of the organization. Proper leadership works with the employees and not for the employees. Delegation- Employees should be delegated duties which they will be expected to do. In nk.hidelegation it is good to delegate using the ability of power, authority and responsibility that employees possess. Supervision- Proper and regular supervision should be carried out to ensure smooth running of the organization Motivation- Employers should look for ways in which they can motivate the employees to achieve greater results e.g. giving rewards, promotion. Decision making- Effective and efficient decisions should be made that will favor all employees in the organization Co-otulrdination- The employer should coordinate the different activities in the organization and also coordinate tasks to be performed by the employees. Communication- There should be a well streamed line of communication from top to down and from bottom to top. Evaluation- Evaluation should be done both in the midst of an activity and at the end of every activity so as to know if it is successful and sustainable to the organization. Management types Management by objectives- It aims to improve performance of an organization by clearly defining objectives that are agreed to by both management and employees Management by crisis- It is the process by which an organization deals with a major event that threatens to harm the organization, its stakeholders or the general public. Management by exception- Is the practice of examining the financial and operational results of a business, and only bringing issues to the attention of management if results represent substantial differences from the budgeted or expected amount. Management by team approach- It is the ability of an individual or an organization to administer and coordinate a group of individuals to perform a task

Management It is getting things done through people (American management association) Management is a distinct process of planning, organizing, actuating and controlling, performed to determine and accomplish the objectives by the use of people and resources. Administration It refers to management, governance, decision making, and supervision of an organization. It refers to people who plan, organize and run a business or organization   Characteristics or features of management 1. Management is universal They apply more or less the same world over and in any situation 2. Management is a continuous process It is dynamic and an on-going process. The circle of management continues to operate as long as the organization exists. 3. Management is purposeful It exists for a purpose of achieving specific goals. It is therefore the means by which pre-determined goals are accomplished. All management activities are goal oriented. 4. Management is an integrating force It reconciles individual goals with organizational goals by creating a whole which is more than the sum of individuals. 5. Management is a social process It is done by people, through people for the people. It is a social process because it is concerned with interpersonal relationships. 6. Management is intangible It is unseen or invisible force, but its presence can be felt. However, managers who perform management functions are themselves visible. 7. Management is both an art and a science As a science it contains systematic body of theoretical knowledge. It involves practices application of knowledge. As an art, it is based on one’s initiative, creativity, initiativeness and own approach to problem solving   Management training It is the process of increasing the knowledge and skills of an employee for doing a particular job. It is an organized activity designed to create change in the thinking and behavior of people and to enable them to do their jobs in a more efficient manner. Purpose of management training It enables the managers to get acquainted with their present or prospective jobs in order to increase knowledge and skills. It makes new managers more productive and efficient. It makes the old managers familiar with new machines and techniques by refreshing their knowledge. Benefits of management training Management training has the following main advantages; Higher performance. Training helps to improve the quantity and quality of work output. Training increases the knowledge and skills of employees in the performance of particular jobs. Uniformity of procedures. Training helps in work standardization for work which then leads to improved quality of performance. Manpower development. Training enables the organization to fill manpower needs. Training helps to remove defects in the process of selection and competent replacements. Economy of materials and equipments. Trained employees make better and economical use of materials and equipments. Wastage of tools and materials is reduced. When the performers are well trained, industrial accidents and damage to machinery and equipments will be less.gh Less supervision. Training helps to reduce the need for close supervision of workers. It permits management to self reliant individuals towards the performance. High morale. Training helps to improve the job satisfaction and morale of employees. As their productivity increases, there is an improvement in their earning and career prospects. This therefore makes employees cooperative and loyal to the organization. Participative management. Training facilitates delegation and decentralization of authority. Trained employees are willing to accept new and challenging assignments. Types of management training Types of management training for employees can fall under a number of primary categories. Well-planned and properly implemented, a management training curriculum helps build confidence and create well-rounded managers. Training also helps create, reinforce and maintain your company’s culture and mission, which managers may then impart to employees 1. Employee relations Since most managers deal with employees, they must be able to relate to them in a way that has a positive effect on morale and productivity. Managers will need to recognize the different types of communication, how to solve problems and when to take action. 2. Time management and planning Managers must make the most efficient use of their time. Training programs that include time-management, planning, problem solving and delegation skills will help managers make the most of their time and resources. 3. Safety and emergency Employee safety is a major concern for every business and managers must be aware of potential risks and how to handle emergencies. Aside from specific job-related safety and emergency procedure training, managers must know policies and protocol concerning emergency evacuations, fire safety, lockdowns and other safety and security-related issues. 4. Ethics and harassment Ethics encompasses many different training areas including diversity, corporate responsibility and harassment. But any training that deals with the ethical treatment of workers and customers, environmental and legal issues falls under the ethics umbrella 5. Policies and procedures Understanding company policies, mission statement, quality initiatives and general expectations are common, and managers will need to know the reasoning behind them for employee education and enforcement. 6. Human resources Many managers deal with human resource issues every day. Some employees issues are best referred directly to human resources, and the trainings should outline what a manager should and should not do when such issues arises. 7. Leadership and supervisory Effective managers must learn and develop supervisory, team building and leadership skills. There are several management styles and knowing when and how to use them is one of the keys to good management 8. Customer service Customer care service training is not just for employees; managers must be trained in this capacity as well. Customer service training includes many basic elements of other trainings, such as conflict resolution, communication and problem solving but is geared toward customer-based issues rather than those of the company or employee   Management development It is a systematic and continuous process through which managers learn advanced knowledge and skills in managing. It is a planned and organized process of learning and growth designed to improve managerial behaviors and performance. Through this programme, managers cultivate their mental abilities and skills in order to manage effectively. Characteristics of