December 12, 2022

Introduction In Kenya land use is changing from extensive methods of farming to more productive and sustainable intensive methods. Agroforestry is a method of farming which has become increasingly important. Definition This is the practice of integrating a variety of land use It combines tree growing, pasture and crop production practice on the same piece of land to improve the output of the land. Forms of Agroforestry Agroforestry; It is a combination of trees/shrubs and crops in agricultural production. Silvopastoral: It is a combination of growing tree/shrubs, pastoral and keeping of livestock. Agrosilvopastoral: It is a combination of growing trees/shrubs, animals, pastures, and crops. Importance of Agroforestry Environmental protection. Source of income. Afforestation for timber production. Maintenance of soil fertility. Aesthetic value. Labour saving in firewood collection. Source of food and feed. Source of fuel wood. Important Trees and Shrubs for Particular Purposes Eucalyptus Spp; Timber, Bee forage, Fuel wood, Medicinal, Production of essential oils. Acacia Spp; Leaves and pods eaten by animals, Provision of shade. Cajanus cajan (pigeon peas); Proteinous feed for human, Used as fodder Croton megalocarpus(croton); Fuel wood timber for poles Handles for hand tools. Erythrina abyssinica (flame tree); Wood carvings, Bee forage, Nitrogen fixation Markhamia lutea (markhamia tree)­; Timber for construction, Shade, Soil protection, Bee forage. Grevillea robusta (silky oak.) Timber, Fuel wood, Fodder, Bee forage, Soil protection, Wind breaker Sesbania sesban (sesbania); Fodder, Nitrogen fixation, Shade, Fuel wood. Calliandra calothyrsus (calliandra); Fuel wood, Fodder, Nitrogen fixation, Shade, Bee forage. Persea american (avocado) ; Fodder, Fruit production, Shade, Fuel wood. Mangifera indica (mango); Fruit production, Shade trees, Wind break, Soil protection, Fuel wood.  Characteristics of Agroforestry Tree Species: Fast growth rate. Deep rooted. Nitrogen fixation ability. By-product production ability. Be multipurpose in nature. Should not possess competitive ability with main crop .. Have coppicing and lopping ability. Have appropriate canopy – should not shade others. Nutritious and palatable. Trees and Shrubs to Avoid at Certain Sites and Reasons Eucalyptus Spp.-should not be planted near water sources because it would absorb the water. Eucalyptus Spp. -should not be planted on the arable land as the roots have allelophathic effects on other vegetation including crops. Tall trees should not be planted near farm buildings because they may fall and damaging the buildings, their roots will break the building stones gradually. Bushy trees or shrubs should not be near farm buildings as they may harbour predators. Tall trees planted with main crop of a lower canopy intercept the rainfall, affecting the growth of the main crop. Cypress trees have leaves which produce acidity in the soil preventing undergrowth beneath the tree. These trees should not be planted within the farm but at the periphery. Tree Nursery Tree nurseries are structures used to raise tree seedlings until they are ready for transplanting. There are 2 main types: Bare root nurseries: These are also known as ‘Swaziland’ beds where the seedlings are raised directly into the soil. Advantages Cheap and less time consuming. Require less labour Occupy a small space. Many seedlings are raised in a small space. Transportation of seedlings is easy. Disadvantages Root damage when uprooting the seedlings. Difficult to transport. Lower survival rate after transplanting. Containerized nursery: The seedlings in this type of nursery are raised in containers such as pots, polythene bags or tubes and tins. Advantages Higher survival rate after transplanting. No root damage. Successful in arid areas. Disadvantages Labour intensive. Difficult to get containers. Sometimes it may be difficult to get the right type of soil to use in the containers. Seed Collection and Preparation Seed Collection Seeds should be collected from; Adaptable trees, High yielding, Healthy Resistant to pests /diseases. The mother plant should be identified first.   The following methods used to collect seeds. Shaking the tree. Gathering from under the tree. Lopping of the tree. Climbing on the trees. Hooking method.   Seed Preparation This done when seeds are collected from a fresh fruit, they should be soaked in water, then washed and dried. Cleaning and sorting: done to remove immature seeds, rotten seeds, broken or damaged seeds. Drying: Done by sun-drying or oven drying. Seed testing: this determines; Seed quality for percentage purity, Seed weight, Moisture content, Germination percentage. Seeds should be stored in dry containers at room temperature. Seed treatment: seeds are treated first to break the seed dormancy and ensure rapid germination; Hot water treatment: used to soften the seed coat to make it more permeable to water. Examples of seeds which require this treatment are leucaenia, calliandra and Mechanical breaking: done by nicking the seed coat with a knife for easy entrance of water for example seeds of croton Light burning: applied to the wattle tree seeds.   Nursery Management The following are the practices carried out in the nursery when the seedlings are growing: Mulching: Aim is to reduce excessive evaporation, Moderates the soil temperature, When it decays it improves the soil structure, Reduces the impact of the raindrops. Weeding: Done to reduce competition for growth factors by uprooting the weeds, Use a sharp pointed stick. Watering: Done by use of a watering can Done twice a day in the morning and in the evening. Pricking out: It is the removal of seedlings in an overcrowded area to another nursery bed, This allows the seedlings to grow strong and healthy. Root pruning: It is the cutting of the roots longer than the pots.               Root pruning is done for the following reasons; Make lifting easier Encourage fast establishment. Reduce damage to the seedlings. Encourage development of a short dense and strong rooting system. Shading: Done to reduce the intensity of sunlight . Dark conditions should be avoided. Pest and disease control: Use of appropriate chemicals, Sterilization of soil through heat treatment, Fencing to protect seedlings against animal damage. Hardening off: It is the practice of preparing seedlings to adapt to the ecological conditions prevailing in the seedbed. It involves gradual reduction of shade and watering 1-2weeks before transplanting. Transplanting: The practice of transferring seedlings from the

Introduction Agricultural marketing is an economic activity which involves the distribution of farm produce from the farm to the consumer. Market and Marketing Market is an institution for the exchange of goods and services or a place where selling and buying of goods takes place. Marketing refers to the flow of goods and services from the producer to the consumers. Marketing Functions Transportation – Movement of goods from production centres to the consumption centres. Buying and selling – Purchase of goods from the producer to be sold to the consumer. Storage – Agricultural products are seasonal hence storage is necessary. Processing-Changing of raw form into utili sable form. Grading and standardisation – Sorting into uniform lots of certain qualities. Assembling – Collecting the farm produce from the farm to the market centres. Collecting market information – To know the prices, supply and demand of certain commodities. Advertising – Making the consumers aware of the produce. Bearing of risks – Such as fire risk, price fluctuation. Financing or expenditure on other processes Packaging or putting into small packs and labelling. Packing or putting produce In containers such as bags.   Marketing Agencies and Institutions Middlemen (itinerant trader) – are the people who buy from the producer and sell to other agencies. Wholesalers – Buy in bulk and sell to the retailers. Retailers – Buy from the wholesalers and sell in small units to the consumers. Problems in Marketing Agricultural Produce Farm produce are bulky, that is weight and volume are high but low in monetary value thus difficult to transport. Most of the agricultural products are perishable for example milk, vegetables and fruits. Storage problems (since they are bulky they require a lot of space). Lack of proper transport system since agricultural products are in the rural areas and the market are situated in urban centres. Lack of market information hence farmers are exploited by middlemen.   Price Theory Price is the amount of money paid in exchange for goods or services. Price theory is concerned with the determination of price of any commodity. Price is determined where demand for and supply of any commodity are equal to each other. Demand It is the quantity of any commodity which is purchased at any price within a given time. The law of demand states that quantity demanded changes inversely with the price. Demand Curve The curve slopes from left to right downwards. This means people buy more at lower prices and vice versa Factors Affecting the Demand of a Commodity Population Income of the consumer. New inventions. Taste and preference of the individual. Price of the substitute commodities. Price expectations. Advertisement. Culture and social values of the consumers. Price of commodities having joint demand for example tractors and diesel. Elasticity of Demand It is the responsiveness of demand to a change in price. Elasticity of demand = Percentage change in quantity demanded Percentage change in price Types of Elasticity of Demand Elastic demand is one where the ratio is more than 1. Unitary elasticity is one where the ratio is equal to 1. Inelastic demand is one where the ratio is less than 1. Supply Supply is the quantity of any commodity which is offered for sale at any price at a given time. The law of supply states that when price rises, quantity supplied increases and when price falls quantity supplied decreases (other factors held constant). The curve rises from left to right upwards. This means that people are willing to offer more for sale at higher prices. Factors Affecting Supply of a Commodity Number of sellers Price of substitute commodities. New technology. Price expectation. Peace and security. Weather conditions. Policy of the government. Cost of production of the commodities. Elasticity of Supply This refers to the rate at which quantity supplied changes due to a change in price level.   Percentage change in quantity supplied Elasticity of Supply=   Percentage change in Price Type of Elasticity of Supply Elastic supply one where the ratio is more than 1. Unitary elasticity of supply is one where the ratio is equal to 1. In elastic supply is one where the ratio is less than 1. One of the problems of agricultural produce is that supply does not readily adjust to price changes. Equilibrium Price Is the price at which demand and supply are equal. That means whatever is offered for sale at the market is bought. In the graph below, the quantity supplied and demanded are equal at a price of Shs.300 and quantity of 80kg. At this point the price is higher than shs.300 then the supply will be greater than demand and there will be surplus hence price will fall. If, on the other hand, the price is less than shs.300 demand will be greater than supply hence shortage and rise in price. Agricultural Organization Agricultural organizations are agencies which, through their activities, promote agricultural development. These organizations are co-operatives and statutory boards. Co-operatives A co-operative is an organisation of people with a common aim of pooling their resources to achieve their objecti Functions of Co-operatives A co-operative society carries out the following functions: Collecting and assembling members’ produce. Processing the farm produce after collecti Transportation of members’ produce to market poi Negotiation of fair prices with the purchasing agencies for the members’ produc Purchase and distribution to members of farm inputs. Storage of members’ produce before transmission to market points. Provision of credit facilities to members on easy terms. Training and education of members on improved farming techniques. Offering farm machinery services to their members on hire terms for farm operati Co-operatives may invest in other viable ventures and the profits realised are shared among members in form of dividends or bonus Formation and Structure of Co-operatives    The formation of a co–operative takes the following stages: Individuals with common interest collect together to form a primary co- operative society At least ten (10) members qualify for registration. Each primary co-operative society elect their office bearers consisting of

Introduction Financial and physical records if accurately kept in the farm serve as very important tools in decision-making The records are kept in several books and statements as follows: Financial Documents They include: Invoices. Receipts. Delivery notes Purchase records. An Invoice This is a document issued by the seller to the buyer for goods taken on credit, and payment to be done later. The original is given to the buyer and duplicate retained by seller. The invoice shows the following: The buyer and seller. Date of transaction. Amount involved. Invoice number. A Receipt This is a document issued by the seller to the buyer when cash payment for goods delivered is made. It shows the following: The buyer and the seller. Date of transaction. Amount involved. Serial number Delivery Note It is a document which shows that the goods have been delivered. The receiver verifies the goods and then signs on the delivery note.  Features: The delivery note shows the following: Goods delivered as per order. Quality or condition. People involved in the transaction. Date of delivery. Journal: It is a book of first entry showing a record of all business transactions arranged in the order in which they occur. Its pages are divided vertically into five sectio The information is posted to the ledger Inventory: This is a list of all the possession/assets item by item and their market value. Such items are land, livestock, tools and equipment and crops in the store. Valuation is an estimation of the value of each asset or item, based on market price or cost of production.  Local Purchase Order: Issued by the purchasing officer of the supplier for example school. It shows people involved in the transaction, types and amounts of goods ordered and dates. It should be written and signed by the authorised officer. It is written in duplicate and the original is given to the supplier. Financial Books Ledger: Is a book which contains individual accounts. It is a principle book of accounts in which entries contained in all the other books are enter It is a storehouse of all the transactions. Each page is numbered and vertically divided into two equal parts namely credit and debit. Each part is further sub-divided into four sections. Cash Book: It is a book where transactions involving cash or cheque payments are record It involves cash or cheque payments and receipt It is divided into two parts – debit and credit side. All the receipts of cash or cheque are recorded on the debit and all payments are recorded on the credit  side.  Example: Enter the following entries in the cash book. 1.05 -Received shs.2,000 from Ndete by cheque. 7.05-Bought D.A.P. fertilizer and paid cheque of shs. 5,000. 7.05-Received shs.5,000 cash from Ngala. 4.7.05 -Paid water bill for shs 400 in cas 7.05-Paid telephone bill of 1,500 by cheque. 11.05 -Deposited shs.2,000 in the bank. 20.7.05 -Withdrew shs.2,000 from the bank for home use. Financial Statements Cash Account Sheet It involves the recording of sales and receipts, purchases and ex Each sale or purchase is entered twice, once in the total column and once in the analysis column. The sum of all the entries in the total column should always equal the sum of the entries in all the other columns. The cash analysis account sheet is given above.  The Balance Sheet It is a financial statement of assets and liabilities recorded on a given date. It shows the financial position of a farm business at a glance (snapshot). Assets are items owned by the farmer, These include: Property (money, goods and buildings). Debts receivable from other people. Goods and services paid for in advance. Assets can be divided into two: Fixed assets: assets of permanent nature and not easily converted into cash. Current assets: assets which can be easily converted into cash. Liabilities are claims to the farmer’s property such as bank overdraft and debts payab They are divided into: Current liabilities – debts which must be paid within a short time. Long term liabilities – debts which are payable over many years or over a long period. Profit and Loss Account Prepared at the end of a calendar year. It is a final account which summarises the sale and receipts (income flowing in the business) and the purchases and expenses (flowing out of the business). Note: If assets are more than liabilities then the balancing factor is net capital (in the liability side) hence the farm business is said to be solvent. If the liabilities are more than the assets, then the balancing factor is a loss (in the asset side) hence the farm business is insolvent. To calculate profit or loss, account, valuation is done by having an inventory of all the assets. Valuation of the assets is determined by market price and cost of  production for machinery and buildings as depreciation factor, is attached.

Introduction The agricultural sector is a key player in the economy of our countr It is a major employer and brings a lot of national income through foreign exchan National Income These are the total earnings from goods and services produced by a country in a period of one year.  Relationship Between Firm and Household A household is considered to be a unit comprising a farmer and family members. It produces raw materials and consumes manufactured goods. A firm on the other hand, is any manufacturing or processing unit which consumes raw materials and produces manufactured good Both household and firm generate income, which in turn, is used to: Improve the standard of living of the household members by paying for essential goods and servi The firms build more industries to create more employment and revenue through salaries and wages. Finance government projects through taxes and hence further national development.    Gross Domestic Product (G.D.P.) This is the sum total of all goods and services produced in a country in a period of one year.    Gross National Product (G.N.P.) Is the sum total of G.D.P. and the difference between income inflow (revenue coming into the country from outside) and income outflow (money going out of the country by foreign investors). It represents the total income earned within the country and from abroad.    Per Capita Income Is the Gross National Income (in terms of revenue) divided by the number of people living in the cou It is not a good measure of the economic well-being of the people  because of the uneven distribution of income among them  Contribution of Agriculture to National Development The interaction between household and the firm generate income which is used to finance further expansion of the firms. This creates more employment and revenue. The government taxes the income to finance national development programmes such as; health, education, water, energy communication.  Factors of Production A factor of production is anything that contributes directly to output, that is, it is a productive resource. Productive resources usually employed in the production of goods and services Include: Land Labour Capital Management  Land As a factor of production, refers to the natural characteristics and properties of a given area of land. The key factor here is productivity for example soil fertility, presence of water and minerals and is always fixed and has no geographical mobility.   Labor Besides being a consumer, human beings are also a factor of production They provide the labour force (human power) required in the production process. Labour is assessed in terms of productivity and not mere numbers of workers or labourers. Labour is measured in terms of man hours, man days or man mon The labourer’s productive capacity depends on such factors as; age, health, state of nutrition level of education. The amount of work and the efficiency with which it is performed determines the quality of labour. Capital Capital refers to all man-made assets that help land and labour to produce. It is categorized into: 1. Fixed/durable; 2. Working capital 3. Liquid capital    Fixed/durable;       Capital for example machinery, buildings permanent improvements on land like fences, roads, irrigation facilities water­ supply system.   Working capital;         Which include consumer goods such as; fertilizers, livestock feeds, fuel in store, pesticides.   Liquid capital;        For example; ready money, bank deposits, shares in financial i Management; It is a process of decision making in the farm. Managers use their knowledge and judgment to decide how to combine the other three productive resources in the best way possible. They make plans, execute them and bear the risks or consequences which such plans entail. Production Function     Definition Production function is a physical relationship between inputs and outputs in a production process. It tells the quantity of output (product) that may be expected from a given combination of inputs. Production function may be expressed in table form or graphically as a curve.    Examples: Feeding pigs for pork production at varying levels of concentrate feed. Types of Production Functions A production function assumes three forms which may be treated as different types: 1. Increasing Returns 2. Constant Returns 3. Decreasing (Diminishing) Returns    Increasing Returns In this type, each additional unit of input results in a larger increase in output than the preceding unit. This shows that resources are under utilized. Constant Returns The amount of the product increases by the same amount for each additional input; that is constant returns to input factor. Again here resources are under uti Decreasing (Diminishing) Returns Here, each additional unit of input results in a smaller increase in output than the preceding unit. Resource use is stretched to the maxi It is the most commonly encountered form in agricultural enterprises; It gives rise to the law of Diminishing Returns. Examples: Feeding dairy cows for milk production with varying amounts of feed. Crop responses to application of varying amounts of fertilizers. Use of varying units of labour on fixed unit of land.   Economic Laws and Principles The Law of Diminishing Returns The law of diminishing returns states that; ’’if successive units of one input are added to fixed quantities of other inputs a point is eventually reached where additional product (output) per additional unit of input declines.’’ This law is encountered practically in all forms of agricultural production. It is useful in determining the most rational and profitable level of production.   Example: Production of maize at varying levels of N.P.K. fertilizer application on a fixed area of land. Zones of a production function curves these are: Irrational zone or Zone I. Rational zone or Zone II Irrational zone or Zone III. The three zones are arrived at by drawing two perpendicular lines through the production function curve, one at MP = AP and another at MP= In Zone I resources are not fully utilized while in Zone III, excessive application of resources leads to production decline or loss. It is not economical to produce at these levels. In

Introduction Farm power is any form of energy used in the farm to do work.             . Sources of Farm Power Human Power Performs light tasks. Quality of work produced is variable. Takes a long time to complete a task. Animal Power Done by draught animals such as camels, donkeys, horses and elephants. Used in land preparation and transportation. Disadvantages Slow. Animals are liable to sickness and get tired. Need enough food. Wind Power To pump water from boreholes. To winnow crops such as beans, finger millet and rice. Generate electricity. Disadvantages Not easy to control and may not be available when needed. Water Power Irrigation. Grinding mills (to grind maize grains). Disadvantages Difficult to use in the farm because it is not easy to control. Biomas This includes: wood or charcoal biogas power. Charcoal/Wood Fuel Energy Uses Provides heat for boiling water and cooking. Dehydrating of some crops. Curing of tobacco. Disadvantages Exhaustible. It cannot be used directly in some farm operations. Large quantities are required. They are bulky hence difficult to transport. Biogas Uses Provides heat and light for cooking, boiling water and lighting. Produces electricity. Disadvantages Only possible where there are animals under zero grazing unit. It is labour-consuming. Large quantities of dung are required. Cannot be used directly in some farm operations. Fossil Fuels These include: coal, petroleum oils natural gas. Uses Petrol or diesel is burned in internal combustion engines to produce power. Kerosene is the main source of power to light rural homes. Natural gas is used for cooking, heating and lighting. Electrical Power It includes: hydro-electrical power (HEP), geothermal, nuclear power stored in batteries. Nuclear energy is a potential source of power which has not yet been used in the farms. Uses of Electrical Power Runs stationary machines such as milling machines, grinding mills, cooling machines and water pumps. Supplies heat and light for operations of brooders. Disadvantages Cannot be used directly in some farm operations. Lack of electricity in the rural areas. Power failures can lead to high losses. It is costly to install and maintain.   Solar Energy Energy obtained from the sun. Uses Provides heat and light. Used by all the plants in photosynthesis. Dehydrating crops such as vegetables, maize grains, beans and hay. Boils water which drives turbines to produce power for minor uses. Disadvantage Low concentration of energy on cloudy d Expensive In collecting and concentrating equipment. Cannot be used directly in some farm operation Requires skilled labour to install and maintain. Tractor The tractor has an internal combustion engine which burns petrol or diesel to produce power. This power is then passed to the gear box from where it is transmitted in various ways. The common tractor engine is a four stroke cycle engine. The four strokes are: Induction stroke. Compression stroke. Power stroke. Exhaust stroke. Induction Stroke Piston moves down. Inlet valve opens. Fuel and air get into the cylinder. Compression Stroke Inlet valve is closed. Piston moves up the cylinder. Fuel-air mixture is compressed. Power Stroke A spark is produced at spark plug, igniting the fuel-air mixture. The increased pressure forces the piston down the cylinder. Exhaust Stroke – Exhaust valve opens. Piston moves up the cylinder. Burned fuel-air mixture expelled.   Advantages of the Four Stroke Engines Produce high power which can do heavy farm work. Have efficient fuel and oil utilization. Perform a wide range of farm operations. Are effectively cooled with water thus allowing the production of large engine size. Exhaust gasses are effectively expelled from the cylinders.   Disadvantages Are expensive to buy and maintain Their use is limited in some areas; Tractor can only be used on flat or gently sloping areas Require skilled personnel and support services   The Two Stroke Engines Found in small machines such as mowers, motor bikes, and water pumps which do light jobs in the farm. All the cycles are completed in two strokes of the piston.         These strokes are; Induction and compression stroke The piston is at the bottom Piston moves up uncovering the inlet port Fuel-air mixure is drawn in Ignition occurs when the piston reaches the top Piston is forced downward compressing the mixture in the crank. Power and exhaust stroke The piston is at the top Ignited gases produce pressure which force the piston downwards The piston covers the inlet port and traps fresh fuel-air mixture in the crank case Piston moves further down to uncover the exhaust port Fuel-air mixture transferred from the crankcase to the combustion chamber. What Advantages of two stroke engine? Cheap to buy and easy to maintain Economical in fuel consumption Can be used in a wide  range of farmland, including hilly areas Can do small tasks in the farm which would be un-economical to do using the four stroke engine. What disadvantages of two stroke engine? They produce less power hence cannot be used for heavy duties. They are inefficient in burning fuel to produce power. They are air cooled thus limiting the size of the engine. Systems of a Tractor The modern tractor has the following systems: The fuel system. Electrical system Ignition system Cooling system Power transmission system. The Fuel System Supplies fuel to the engine. Categorized into two types depending on the fuel used. These are: The petrol fuel system. The diesel fuel system The Petrol Fuel System Consists of: Fuel tank – storage of fuel. Fuel filter – removes foreign particles from the fuel. Carburettor – atomises fuel into spray. introduces fuel-air mixture into the engines. Regulates fuel-air into suitable proportion Fuel pump – forces fuel into the carburettor. Delivery pipe – connects all the devices.   Maintenance Cleaning the carburettor regularly. Cleaning the fuel filter in petrol. Cleaning the hole in the fuel tank cap. The Diesel Fuel System Consists of: Fuel tank – storage of fuel. Fuel injection pump – pumps diesel through injection nozzles and breaks into fine spray. Fuel filters – remove foreign particles from the fuel. Delivery pipes – connect the various devices.

Introduction Cattle production is a widely distributed enterprise in Kenya. Most farming communities choose between the exotic and the’ local breeds or their crosses depending on the environmental conditions. Whereas the backbone of beef industry in Kenya is made up of the indigenous animals and their crosses, and based in the somewhat drier areas, the-dairy industry is mainly based on the exotic breeds and their crosses and common in the wetter regions of Kenya. Whatever production undertaken, the returns depend mostly on the management levels provided to these animals. A productive herd starts with good management of the young stock. Raising of Young· Stock. The young one of cattle is known as a calf. Feeding Dairy Calves Newborn calves should be given colostrums within the first 3-5 days of their life. Colostrum is important for the following reasons: It is highly digestible. It contains antibiotics. It is highly nutritious. It serves as a laxative. It is highly palatable. Calves can be fed using natural method (direct suckling) or artificially/bucket feeding. Natural Method In this method, calves suckle the mother directly. Advantages The calf takes milk at body temperature. The milk is free from contaminants. Less problems of scouring. Disadvantages Underfeeding of the calf may result. Cows may not let down milk in case the calf dies. Difficult to keep accurate production records. Artificial/Bucket Feeding The calf is trained to feed from the bucket immediately after birth. The calf is trained as follows: Well measured milk is put in a clean bucket. Index finger is inserted into the mouth of the calf. The head of the calf is lowered slowly into the bucket until the calf starts to drink the milk. The finger is withdrawn slowly as the calf continues to drink from the bucket. The procedure is repeated until the calf gets used to the process. Advantages Easy to keep accurate production record/milk yields of the cow. Possible to regulate the amount of milk given to the calf The cow does not need the presence of the calf in order to let down milk Easy to maintain high hygiene standards. Disadvantages Laborious Calf may be given cold milk Equipment used and the stockman may be dirty leading to scours Preparation of artificial colostrums Ingredients used A fresh egg whipped in 0.86 litres of warm water Litre of warm water One teaspoonful of cod liver oil One tablespoonful of castor oil Note; colostrums is fed to the calves three times a day for the first 4 days of life and thereafter twice a day. Weaning of calves Early weaning Calf is fed on whole milk up to the tenth week then it is weaned Calf is given milk equal to 10% of its body weight up to the 8th week After 8th week, milk is reduced gradually by 1 kg until weaning Calf is given early weaning concentrates and soft forage Late weaning Calf is fed on whole milk up to the 3rd week, when milk is replaced gradually with skim milk. At the age of 3weeks the calf is introduced to calf pellets or pencils and green fodder. The calf is given plenty of clean water. The calf continues to be given additional skim milk up to the age of 14 weeks when maximum amount of milk is given. Skim milk is reduced from 14 weeks to 16 weeks when weaning is done. Rearing of replacement stock The replacement stock includes young heifers and bulls which have been selected for breeding to replace the old stock. Management Practice Parasite control-Spraying against external parasites and deworming against internal parasites. Disease control-Calves are vaccinated routinely against diseases such as; Blackquater-at 4 months old. Anthrax and Blackquater at 6 months old Brucellosis – 3-8 months old (heifers). Castration – for male calves not selected for breeding. Identification – Suitable methods are used. It allows proper record keeping. Removal of Extra Teats ; These teats are known as supernumerary teats which make milking of the animal difficult. They are clipped off with teat clippers. Dehorning/Disbudding – The removal of horn buds using suitable methods. Calf Housing Requirement of a Calf Pen; Should be clean and easy to clean. Be warm and dry. Have adequate space to allow exercise and feeding. Should be properly lit and allow sunlight for Vitamin D. Have proper drainage to avoid dampness. Draught free to prevent chilling. Be well ventilated to allow fresh air.   Types of Pens These can be; permanent mobile/movable. Permanent Pens Have a solid floor raised above the ground. The floor should be slanted for drainage. Constructed near the milking parlour. Mobile/Movable Pens Have an open floor to allow grass into the pen. Easily moved from one place to another to avoid soiling. Kept outdoors in the pastures to allow the calf to nibble on pastures. Single Housing Calves should be housed singly up to the age of 3 weeks, when they are put in group pens. This is to avoid them licking each other and swallowing hairs which form indigestible balls. Milk and Milking Milk is the white lacteal substance secreted by the mammary glands of the female mammals. Composition of Milk Protein – Casein and whey. Fat – Butter fat. Carbohydrates – Lactose Minerals – mainly calcium and phosphorus. Water Factors Affecting Milk Composition Age of the animal. Conditions of the animal. Stage of lactation and pregnancy. Completeness of milking. Type  of breed. Season of the year. Type of food eaten. Physiological conditions such as diseases.   Milk Secretion and Milk Let-down Milk is secreted by the mammary glands which is an accessory gland of the reproductive system. The mammary gland of a cow is known as an udder. The udder is composed of the following parts: Alveolus cells – synthesize and secrete milk. Lobule – a group of alveolus cells. Lobe – Several lobules grouped together and drained by lactiferous ducts. Gland cistern – space where milk collects from the lobes. Teat cistern – A space where milk collects before emission. Teat

Introduction Poultry industry in Kenya has developed tremendously due to the use of artificial incubation and brooding and easy availability of hybrid birds, both eggers and broilers. Poultry production has become an easy source of income and food for the rural as well as the urban communities. The term poultry includes domestic birds such as turkeys, ducks, geese, pheasants, doves and pigeons. Of late ostrich farming has become a lucrative activity. Poultry production starts with incubation of eggs. Parts of an Egg Shell Forms 10-12% of the whole egg content. Made of calcium and phosphorus. Protects the inner egg contents. Shell membrane Made of inner and outer membranes. Lining of the egg shell. Constitutes 1 % of the total egg content. Albumen (egg white) About 55-60% of the total egg content. It is divided into chalaza, thick and thin albumen. Chalaza holds the egg yolk in position. Albumen serves as food for the chick. Yolk 30-33% of the total egg content. Supply embryo with nutrient Germinal disc -The embryo which develops into a chick if fertilized. Vitelline membrane – Gives the yolk its round shape. Air sac Keeps the egg fresh by allowing gaseous exchange. Provides oxygen for the embryo Egg Candling: This is the practice of determining the internal qualities of an egg by examining it against a light source. Procedure The egg is placed on a hole made on a .cardboard box. This is called a candling box. A source of light is placed in the box directly under the egg. The observer then looks through the egg against the source of light below. Abnormalities on and within the egg can be seen through the translucent shell.  Incubation Involves the provision of fertile eggs with the proper condition for embryonic development. Selection of Eggs for Incubation Should be fertile. Should be of medium size about 55- 60gms in weight. Should have smooth shell. Should be oval shaped. Should not be cracked. Eggs should be clean to ensure that pores are open. Should not have abnormalities such as blood spots, meat spots and double yolk.     . Eggs should not be more than 5 days old. Eggs should be fresh that is collected within one week. Internal egg qualities can be determined through the egg candling process. Methods of Incubation Natural Incubation This involves the use of a broody hen which sits on the eggs to provide them with conditions necessary for hatching. Takes 20-21 days. The hen is given about 10-15 eggs. Signs‘ of Broodiness in Poultry Tendency to sit on an egg after laying. Moulting of the hen. Making some noise at the laying nests. Feathers are raised. It becomes aggressive when disturbed. It stops laying. Preparation and Management of Natural Incubation The hen is given “China eggs” to sit on to induce broodiness. When broody the hen should be provided with a nesting nest or a saucer­shaped nest scooped on the ground. The nest shall be lined with soft bedding and fertile eggs provided. The eggs are set in the evening or night. The bird is dusted to control external parasites. The hen is allowed t hour outside to feed and exercise everyday. Broken eggs should be removed immediately. The hen should not be disturbed. Advantages of Natural Incubation It is cheap. High hatchability. Low risk involved. Useful in small scale production. Less skill is required. Less laborious. Disadvantages of Natural Incubation Egg production is low because the hen will not lay eggs during incubation. It is not possible to plan when to incubate. If the hen dies the eggs will be destroyed. If the hen deserts the eggs or refuses to sit on them the farmer will incur losses. Only few chicks can be hatched at a time by one hen. Diseases and parasites could easily be transmitted to the chicks. Artificial Incubation This is the use of artificial device known as an incubator for hatching eggs. Conditions Necessary for Artificial Hatching of Eggs Temperature – maintain at 37.5°C-39.4 °C throughout to control the rate of embryonic development of the chick. High or low temperatures are lethal. Ventilation – Good air circulation. Carbon dioxide: oxygen ratio maintained at 0.03%:21 %. Relative humidity – Maintained at 60%. High humidity leads to marshy chicks low humidity the chick may stick to the shell. Turning of Eggs – Done 3-4 times a day to facilitate uniform distribution of heat for uniform development of chick. Turn slowly 180 ° clockwise along the axis to avoid breaking the blood v Some incubators have automatic turning mechanism. Cleanliness – cleaning and disinfecting the incubator with formaldehyde solution. Advantages of Artificial Incubation It facilitates large scale production of chicks. Incubators are always ready when needed. Artificial incubation leads to higher egg production because broodiness in the hens is not required, so there is more time for laying eggs. Disadvantages of Artificial Incubation High initial capital in buying an incubator. High level of management and attention is required. It is not economical for only a small number of eggs. High risks involved in turning the eggs. Brooding and Rearing of Chicks Brooding is the rearing of day old chicks upto 8 weeks old for the layer chicks and 2 weeks for the broiler chicks. For successful brooding the source of the chicks should be considered. Sources of Chicks The following factors should be considered: The reputation of the supplier (hatchery). Time taken by the chicks in transit. Proper sexing and breed identification. Brooding Natural Brooding A hen is allowed to take care of the chicks. She provides them with warmth and security. She stays with the chicks for 8 weeks and then rejects them. Advantages It is cheap. Less labour is needed. Suitable for small scale. Disadvantages of Natural Brooding Not possible to produce large numbers of chicks. The hen goes off laying during brooding time. Only possible when a broody hen is available. Artificial Brooding The chicks are raised artificially in a structure known as a brooder until they are 8

TOPIC 1 : LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION V ( POULTRY ) – Click to view TOPIC 2 : LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION VI ( CATTLE ) – Click to view TOPIC 3 : FARM POWER AND MACHINERY – Click to view TOPIC 4 : AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS III ( PRODUCTION ECONOMICS ) – Click to view TOPIC 5 : AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS IV ( FARM ACCOUNTS ) – Click to view TOPIC 6 : AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS V ( AGRICULTURAL MARKETING AND ORGANISATIONS ) – Click to view TOPIC 7 : AGROFORESTRY – Click to view

Introduction Livestock diseases are classified according to causative agents as follows: Protozoan diseases -caused by protozoans. Bacterial diseases – caused by bacteria: VIral diseases – cause by virus. Nutritional diseases – brought about by nutritional disorders. Protozoan Diseases East coast Fever (ECF). Anaplasmosis (gall sickness) Coccidiosis Trypanosomiasis (Nagana) East coast Fever Animals attacked: Cattle Cause: Protozoan. (Theileria parva) It is a tick-borne disease transmitted by red-­legged tick and brown ear tick. Symptoms Rise in body temperature. Swelling of lymph glands below the ear. Difficulties in breathing. Dullness. Control and Prevention Control of vectors through dipping and fencing. Treatment by use of clexon in the early stages.   Anaplasmosis (gall sickness)  Animals attacked: Cattle between 2 months and 2 years. Poult Lambs and kids. Rabbits. Cause: Protozoan (Anaplasma marginale) Transmitted by the blue tick contaminated surgical instruments and hypodermic needles. Symptoms Fever/rise in body temperature. Constipation or hard dung. Paleness in the gums, eyes and lips. Drop in milk production. Control Tick control. Intramuscular injection of antibiotics and iron giving injections. Coccidiosis Coccidiosis of Poultry Cause: Protozoan (Eimeria spp.) Symptoms Sudden death of chicks. Whitish, yellow and blood stained diarrhoea. Ruffled feathers. Chicks become paralysed before dying. Chicks become anaemic and dull. Control Disinfection of chick house. Prevention of contamination of food and water with droppi Use of prophylatic drugs for example, Coccidiostats. Trypanosomiasis (Nagana) Animals attacked: cattle, sheep and goats. Cause: Protozoan of the trypanosome species, Vector-tsetse flies. Symptoms Fever. Dullness. Anorexia/loss of appetite. Loss of body condition/emaciation. Swollen lymph nodes. Lachrimation which leads to blindness. Diarrhoea Rough coat and sometimes without hair and may be cracked. Swelling in parts of the belly. Drop in milk production in lactating cows. Loss of hair at tail end. Anaemia. Abortion may occur in pregnant females. Control Treating animals with trypanocidal drugs. Effective  vector (Tsetse flies)control Confinement of wild animals in game parks.   Bacterial Diseases Fowl typhoid Foot rot. Contagious abortion. Scours. Blackquarter. Mastitis. Anthrax. Pneumonia. Fowl Typhoid Animals attacked: All domestic birds which include chicken, turkey and ducks. Causes: Bacteria (Salmonella gallinarum} Symptoms Depression/appearing very sick. Respiratory distress. Dullness. Drooping wings. Sleepy eyes. Anaemia resulting in pale and shrunken combs and wattles. Greenish yellow diarrhoea. Control Killing all affected birds and proper disposal of the carcasses. Maintaining hygiene in the poultry house. Ensuring that the house is dry and well ventilated. Obtaining chicks from reliable sources. Treatment using sulphur drugs which are mixed in drinking water or mash. For example: application of Furazolidone (Furazol) at the rate of 0.04% in mash for 10 continuous days treats the disease effectively. Foot Rot It is also referred to as foul-in-the foot. Animals attacked: cattle, sheep and goats. However, it is most serious in sheep. Cause: Bacteria (Fusiformis necrophorus and Fusiformis nodosus). Symptoms Animal’s foot becomes swollen. Lameness is observed. Pus and rotten smell come out of the hoof. Sheep are found kneeling while grazing when the front feet are affected. Animals spend most of their time lying down when the hind feet are affected. Emaciation due to lack of feeding.   Control Hygiene in the living places. Regular foot examination and hoof trimming. Use of a foot bath of copper sulphate solution at 5-10% solution or formalin at 2-5% solution. Treating wounds on the feet with antiseptics. Affected animals should be given antibiotic injections. Isolation of sick animals from healthy ones. Avoid dampness and muddy conditions. Contagious Abortion (Brucellosis/ Bang‘s Disease) Animals attacked: cattle, sheep, goats and pigs. It also affects ma Cause: Bacteria Brucella abortus in cattle, Brucella suis in pigs Brucella malitensis in goats and sheep. Symptoms Spontaneous abortion or premature birth. Retained placenta if abortion occurs during the later stages of pregnancy. Infertility in cows while bulls have low libido and inflamed testis also known as orchitis. A yellowish brown, slimy, odourless discharge from the vulva may occur after the abortion. Control Use of artificial insemination. Slaughtering affected animals followed by proper disposal of their carcasses. The attendant to the animals should avoid contact with the aborted foetus. A blood test should be carried out for all breeding animals to detect the infected ones. Hygiene in the animals’ houses. Scours (white Scours) Animals atacked: calves, piglets, lambs and kids. Cause: A bacterium which attacks young animals in the first week of life. Symptoms White or yellowish diarrhoea. Pungent smelling faeces. Fever. Anorexia/loss of appetite. Listlessness. Sunken eyes. Undigested milk and mucus with blood spots observed in the faeces. Faecal matter sticks to the hind quarters. Sudden death if no treatment is given. Control Maintaining hygiene in the young animal housing units. Avoiding dampness on the floor of the house. Fingers of the attendant training calves to drink milk from a bucket must be disinfected. Calving should be carried out in a clean area. Have separate attendants for the infected calves to prevent disease spread. Replacing milk with warm water mixture. Treating affected animals with antibiotics. Black Quarter It is also known as black leg. Animals attacked: All ruminants aged between 8 – 18 months. Cause: Bacteria (Clostridium chauvei and Chauvei septicum) Symptoms Lameness. Fever. Fast and heavy breathing. Cracking on the swollen parts if touched. Swelling of the affected parts usually the hindquarters, shoulders and chest or back. Dullness. Anorexia. Grunting and grinding of teeth. Animal stops chewing cud. Control Treating with recommended antibiotics. Vaccinating using black quarter vaccine known as blanthax. Burying the carcass deep or burning it completely. Mastitis Is an inflammation of the udder. Animals attacked: Goats, cows, pigs and human beings. Cause: Bacteria (Streptococcus spp. or Staphylococcus spp.) Pre–disposing Factors: Incomplete milking. Injuries on the udder and teats. Weak sphincter muscles of the teats allowing free flow of milk. Symptoms Milk is watery, blood stained or clotted. Swollen udder Control Proper milking techniques. Treatment by use of antibiotics. Culling of animals which are often attacked. Anthrax Attacks all domestic animals. Cause: Bacteria (Bacillus anthracis) Symptoms Sudden death. High fever. Grinding of the teeth. Pneumonia It is an inflammation of the lungs. Animals attacked: Calves, kids,

Introduction These are plants which either grow naturally or are cultivated by man to be used for feeding livestock. The term forage crops include pasture and fodder crops. Fodder crops are purposely grown for feeding livestock. They are cut or uprooted when ready Pasture is a ground cover of grass or a mixture of grass and legumes grazed directly or cut and fed to livestock.   Classification of Pastures According to type of stand. Either pure Mixed stands. According to ecological zones . Low altitude, Medium altitude, High altitude pastures According to the establishment . Natural Artificial pastures. Examples of grasses Napier, Rhodes, Setaria, Molasses, Congo signal, kikuyu, star, Guatemala, Sudan Examples of legumes; Lucern, Clover, Desmodium, Glycine, Stylo, Centrio,   Pasture Establishment Seedbed Preparation This involves clearing the land, primary and secondary cultivation to a fine tilth because the seeds are small. This is done during the dry season. Selection of planting materials Select seeds of high germination percentage, Free from impurities or buy certified seeds. If vegetative materials are used, select from high yielding, vigorous-growing and healthy plants. Treatment of legume seeds Legume seeds are inoculated with the correct strain of bacteria which fix nitrogen for the crop.     Planting This is done at the beginning of the rains      Methods of sowing are; Direct sowing, Under sowing, Over-sowing Oversowing This is introduction of a pasture legume in an existing grass pasture. Undersowing The establishment of a pasture in an already existing crop which acts as a cover crop.      Seeds  rate depend; On purity of seeds, Pasture species Whether pure or mixed stand. Apply phosphatic fertilizer when planting and later top-dress  with nitrogenous fertilizer. Pasture management Re-seeding or gapping; Re-seeding is done if the grass is completely denudated. But if partially, gapping can be done Control of weeds by slashing, uprooting and mowing Fertilization of pastures-done by use of manures and nitrogenous fertilizer. Topping;This is the removal of stemmy fibrous material left behind after grazing.It allows new growth  after the rains Control of pests-done by trapping of moles, use of pesticides and biological means. Pasture Utilization Pastures should be utilized at maturity when nutritive value is high.        It is utilized through the following methods: Direct grazing – this can be done through rotational grazing or herding. Zero grazing – this is where the pasture is cut and fed to the animals in the stalls.   Common fodder Crops Edible Cana Altitude: 1500 – 2000m above sea level. Establishment: Young tubers or bulbs are used. Spacing: 1m x 1m. Management: Does well with application of farmyard manure and requires fertile land. Utilization: Tops and tubers are sliced and fed to livestock. Conservation: Bulbs or tubers are sliced and stored.    Napier Grass Altitude: 0 – 2000m above sea level. Establishment: Stem cuttings or splits. Spacing: 1 m x 50cm. Management: Apply phosphatic fertilizers during planting time. Top-dress with nitrogenous fertilizers in split application. Clean weeding when young. Cut when 6-8 weeks or 1m-1.5m in height. Utilization: Cut stem is fed to livestock. Conservation: Ensiled when in plenty. Types of Napier Grass: Bana grass (broad-leaved with hairy leaves) Clone (thin-stemmed and hairless) French Cameroon (thin-stemmed and not hairy). Pakistan hybrid (thin-leaved with hairy leaves). Used for silage making. Lucerne Altitude: 1500 – 2500m above sea level. Soil: Deep red soil are ideal. Establishment: Inoculated seeds are planted 30-50cm apart in the rows. Management: Weeding and fertilizer application. Utilization: Cut wilted and fed to livestock before flowering stage. Conservation: Hay, silage, dried materials such as cubes or pencils.  Mangolds Is a root crop. Root is utilized as livestock feed. Ripe ones are used.  Kales Leaves used as livestock feeds.  Guatemala Grass Leaves and stems used as livestock feed.   Sorghum Grass Two varieties: Columbus grass Sudan gras Established from seeds which are drilled or broadcasted. Columbus grass should be dried before feeding to animals to avoid hydrocyanic and prussic acid poisoning. Desmodium (Desmodium spp) Two varieties ; Green leaf Silver leaf. Established from seeds on thoroughly prepared clean beds. Can also be inter-planted with Napier grass. Cut and wilted before feeding to livestock. Agroforestry, trees used as fodder crops include: Leucaenia Calliandra Atriplex Sesba Forage Conservation Forage can be conserved as; Hay, Silage Standing forage. Importance of forage conservation: To reserve excess forage for use during time of shortag To avoid unnecessary wastage of f Conserved forage can be sold. To have sustained supply of feed for livestock throughout the year. Methods Hay Making This is the dehydration of green pastures to a moisture content of 16-20 per cent: Steps in hay making: Cut the crop when the sun is shining. Dry the materials for 1-2 days. Windrow the dry material to allow for further drying. Bale the dry materials for storage. Store under shed or shelter. Factors Determining Quality of Hay Stage of growth at which forage is harvested. Leaf content of the forage material. Method of handling and curing the hay. Form in which material is fed to livestock. Species of forage used. Amount of foreign materials in forage.  Silage Making This is a feed produced by conserving forage in succulent form through the process of fermentation by anaerobic bacteria. Steps in silage making: Cut the crop and transport it to the silo, Material with a high moisture content is wilted in the sun for 4-48 hours before ensiling . Material is chopped to reasonable size pieces before filling in the silo. Spread the chopped material evenly. Check temperature if below 31°C, needs further filling; if above 31 °C compaction is necessary. Filling should be complete by the end of the third or fourth day. The silo is covered with 15cm of straw, sawdust then 15cm of soil to make it air and water tight. A trench is dug round the silo to keep off surface water. Factors Affecting the Quality of Silage Maturity stage of the crop when cut. Type of crop. Moisture content of the material Additives such as molasses. Degree of compaction. Size

Introduction There are many crops cultivated in Kenya. These crops are grown for various uses and require different ecological conditions. Definitions: Hybrids – These are crop varieties developed by crossing two pure lines. Composites – These are crop varieties developed through repeated mass selection. Cultivars – these are varieties of crops which are cultivated in a given area. Maize Main growing areas: Trans-Nzoia, Nakuru, Uasin Gishu, Laikipia districts and others. Ecological Requirements Altitude: Upto 2000m above sea level. Temperature: About 25°C Soils: Freely draining, fertile loam soils. Rainfall: 750-12S0rnm critical at silking and pollination stage. Varieties High altitude areas: Hybrids 611, 613 and 614C. Medium altitude areas: 511,512,622 and 632. Marginal rainfall areas: Katumani composite and Makueni composite. Coast regions: Coast composite and Katumani composite. Seedbed Preparation Ploughing should be deep and done during the dry season to eradicate weeds. Require medium tilth. Plant spacing 75-90cm x 20-30cm. Planting done at the onset of the rains. This helps to reduce pest attack. Dry planting in areas with inadequate rainfall is necessary. Field Maintenance: Apply phosphatic fertilizer during planting at a rate of 120kg/ha P2O5 Also nitrogenous fertilizers as top dress at the rate of 200kg of ASN or CAN. Control weeds by cultivation, use of appropriate herbicides, uprooting, slashing and mulching.   Pest Control Maize Stalk Borer: Nature of damage: Boring the leaves causing windowing effect, boring the stems and cobs. Control: Destruction of previous years crop residue, closed season and apply chemicals Maize Weevils: it is a storage pest. Damage: Bores holes into the maize grains, eating the contents. Control: Proper hygiene and sanitation in the stores. Use of chemicals such as Actellic Super. Disease Control: Rust Cause: Symptoms: Red or brown pustules on the. leaves. Control: Plant resistant varieties and crop rotation. Smuts Cause: Fungus Symptoms: Black sooty mass of spores on maize heads or cobs(ear). Control: Crop rotation, growing resistant varieties and destruction of affected plant parts. Maize Streak Virus Cause: Virus Symptoms: Yellow longitudinal stripes parallel to the midrib. Control: Certified seed, early planting and rogueing. Harvesting Harvest the crop 3-9 months after planting depending on variety. Maize stalks are cut and stocked in the field. Cobs removed by hand. For large scale harvesting, combined harvesters are used. Yields about 3,OOOkg and 4500kg/ha. Bulrush Millet Areas where grown: Lower areas of Kirinyaga, Embu, Meru, Parts of Machakos Kerio Valley. Ecological Requirements Altitude: Does well in areas below 1200m. Rainfall: 500-600mrn per annum. Soils: Light sandy soils. Varieties: Serere 2A, 3A, 6A, 17, 16/9 Seed Bed Preparations Ploughing of land during the dry season. Soil should be of fine tilth since the seeds are small. Planting: Done at the onset of the rains. Planted by broadcasting and row planting at a spacing of 60cm x 15cm. Field Maintenance: Weeding is done until tillering. Top-dressing is done by use of sulphate of ammonia. Pest Control Birds Nature of Damage: Eats the seeds at milky stage. Control: Bird scaring devices. Disease Control Ergot Cause: Fungus. Symptoms: Heads become sticky. Control: Use of certified seeds, crop rotation and destruction of affected crops. Downy Mildew Cause: Fungus. Symptoms: Long, whitish lines on the leaves. Control: Crop rotation and field hygiene. Harvesting Done by cutting off the heads. Drying of the heads. Threshing and winnowing of the grains. Stored under well ventilated dry conditions. Yields about 1000kg/ha with good management. Finger Millet Areas where grown: Western Kenya and Uganda. Ecological Requirements Altitude: 0-2400m above sea level. Rainfall: 900mm, drought resistant in the early stages. Soils: Free draining fertile soils. Varieties: Serere varieties developed at Serere in Uganda. Ultra lupin 5.18 oats.  Land Preparations The seedbed should be thoroughly prepared to a fine tilth due to the small size of the seeds. It also helps to control weeds. Field Operations Planting Finger millet should be planted as early as possible in the season. It is usually broadcasted by hand. If planted in rows, the furrows should be 30-33cm apart and the plants should be thinned to 5cm apart within the rows. Fertilizer Application Sulphate of ammonia at the rate of 125kg/ha is recommended for topdressing finger millet. Weed Control Clean seedbed preparation Uprooting Pest Control:  Birds are controlled through scaring. Disease Control Head blast: Cause: Fungus Symptoms: Brown spots with grey centres on the leaves and stems below the inflorescence. Control: Use of resistant varieties.      Harvesting Individual heads are cut with knives. Heads are dried, threshed and winnowed. Yields  1650kg/ha with good management.   Sorghum It is grown in Western, northern, Rift Valley, Eastern and some parts of Central Province.     Ecological Requirements Altitude: 0-1500m above sea level. Rainfall: 420-630mm. It is drought resistant. Soils: Fairly fertile and well drained soils.   Varieties Dobbs variety. Serena variety.   Field Operations   Planting Broadcasting the seeds on the firmly prepared seedbed. Intercropped with other crops especially maize and beans. Can be planted in pure stands at a spacing of 60cm x 15cm   Fertilizer Application Responds well to farmyard manure (FYM). Inorganic fertilizers are not commonly used in growing sorghum.  Pest Control Bird pests: They are the most common sorghum pests. They include quelea, aethiopica (Sudan Dioch), weaver birds, starling bird bishop’s bird. They are controlled through; killing them using explosives, poison spraying in their breeding places use of flame throwers. Sorghum shoot-fly controlled by early planting, closed season and application of insecticides. Stem borer – control by use of insecticides and field hygiene. Disease Control        Common sorghum diseases include: Leaf blight Anthracnose. Sooty stripe. Loose smut Head smut        Smuts are controlled by seed dressing-while the other diseases are controlled by growing resistant varieties. Harvesting Sorghum is ready for harvesting 3-4 months after planting. Heads are cut off using a sharp knife after which they are sun-dried, threshed, winnowed and stored. Up to 3000kg/hectare can be obtained with good management.   Beans Grown in all provinces where maize is grown. Ecological Requirements Altitude: 10.00-2100 metres above sea level. Rainfall: Average of 62Smm per annum. Soils: Well drained loamy soils rich

Introduction Crop pests and diseases lead to high losses in crop production hence efficient control measures are Proper control measures require the farmers to be able to; Identify these organisms, Know their life cycles, feeding habits The damage they cause to crops. Crop Pests Definition of a Pest: It is a living organism that destroys crops/ trees either directly or indirectly by introducing pathogens (disease causing germs).   Classification of Pests Pests are classified according to the following: Mode of Feeding Pests with biting and chewing mouth parts – they cause physical damage and reduce the photosynthetic area of the plant. Pests with piercing and sucking mouth parts – they suck out the nutritious plant sap and in the process may introduce disease causing organisms. Crops Attacked Some crop pests attack specific crops for example, stem borers prefer cereal crops. Stage of Growth of Crops Attacked There are pests of seedlings attack when the crop is young, for example cutworms. Pests of fruits – attack the crops at fruiting stage. Pests of grains attack the crops when the grains are formed. Field and Storage Pests Some pests attack the crops while in the farm Other pests attack the produce after it has been harvested and stored. Identification of Common Pests Other Crop Pests Include: Mealy bugs – coffee Thrips – coffee Beetles – field and storage pests. Birds – field pests – cereals and fru Rodents – field and storage pests ,cereals and t Nematodes – soil borne pests – tomatoes, potatoes, sunflower, beans. Harmful Effects of Crop Pests Pests such as squirrels and rodents, unearth planted seeds, resulting in poor Some pests like nematodes, termites and moles damage crop roots causing wilting and death of the crops. They lower the quality and quantity of farm produce. They increase the cost of production since farmers will incur expenses in purchasing chemicals to control them. They transmit diseases to crops for example, aphids transmit streak virus disease in maize. Chemicals used to control the pests cause pollution to the environment. They exterminate the crop by feeding on them for example eating embryo of the seed. Control of Pests If pest population causes damage beyond tolerance then it is said to have reached economic injury level (EIL) hence control measures should be effected before this level. Before any control measure is effected ,the following should be considered: Know the life cycle of the pest. Correct identification of the pest. Correct assessment of the damage. The weather conditions. The value of the crop in question. The cost factor of the control method. Methods of Controlling the Pests Cultural methods. Physical/mechanical measures Biological methods. Chemical methods. Integrated pest management. Cultural Methods: These are farming practices which aim at reducing the pest population by destroying the life cycle of the pests either by exposing them to adverse conditions or denying them food. These include: Timely planting to escape pest attack. Timely harvesting. Proper tillage. Close season: this is the period when a susceptible crop is not grown in order to control a certain pest. Trap cropping: These are crops which attract pests diverting them from the main crop. The trap crop is grown together with the main crop. Crop rotation: It breaks the life cycle of the pest. Planting resistant varieties: These are plants with natural protective mechanisms against pest for example hairy cotton against jassid bugs, goose necked sorghum against birds, high tillering in sorghum against shoot fly. Field hygiene: This includes rogueing and removal of crop residues which harbour pests from field. Alterations of environmental conditions, such as, creating a micro­climate which is not conducive to pests for example open pruning in coffee. Crop nutrition: application of fertilizers and manures to make the crop strong and able to escape pest attacks. Destruction of alternate hosts, for example, weeds like mallow which harbour cotton stainers. Use of clean planting materials. This helps to prevent introduction of crop pests. Proper spacing: if well spaced some pests find it difficult to move from one plant to another. Use of organic manure, for example, farmyard manure discourages eel worms (nematodes). Chemical Control Chemicals used to control pests are known as pesticides. Pesticides are administered through dusting, spraying or fumigating. Classification of Pesticides: Pesticides are classified on the basis of: Mode of Entry Stomach – ingested by the pest together with the crop materials. Contact – absorbed through the body tissues. Fumigants – through the breathing mechanism. Systemic – translocated to all parts. Mode of Action Respiratory poisons – interfere with breathing mechanisms. Coagulants – cause the blood of the pest to coagulate. Neurotoxins – act on the nervous system. Protoplasmic poisons – cause the cells to disintegrate. Target Pests Insecticides – kill insect pests Molluscicides – kill snails and slugs. Rodenticides – kill rodents. Nematicides – kill nematodes. Formulation . Dusts, granules and powders Emulsifiable concentrates. Miscible liquids. Wettable powders. Fumigants. Factors That Affect the Efficiency of Pesticides Concentration of the pesticides. Weather conditions at the time of application. Timing of application – efficiency is high if applied when the pest is most susceptible. Persistence of the pesticide having long residual effect in the soil. Resistance of the pests. Advantages of Chemical Pest Control Faster Immediate results are achieved. Low labour requirements. Disadvantages of Chemical Pest Control Expensive to buy. Cause pollution to the environment. Require skilled labour to apply. Some pesticides may kill beneficial organisms and predators. Some target pests may build up resistance. Mechanical Pest Control/Physical This involves the killing of the pests using physical methods. Or creating physical barriers to prevent pests from getting into contact with the crops .    Example: Flooding/irrigation; for example, moles are suffocated through flooding. Use of lethal temperatures: either too cold or too hot. Suffocation; commonly used in grain storage bins by being made air tight. Trapping and killing, for example, rats. Creation of physical barriers, such as, rat bafflers, sticky materials on tree trunks. Proper drying: this makes them too hard to be destroyed by pests.